The philosophy of Hobbes in extracts and notes collected from his writings

Preface

The text of the following selections from the writings of Thomas Hobbes is that of the Molesworth edition, London, 1841. The portrait of Hobbes is reproduced from the same edition, and the title-page to the Leviathan is reproduced from a copy of the first edition in the possession of the Library of the University of Minnesota. Aubrey's Life of Hobbes has been reprinted without change, except for the omission of several notes, from the London edition, 1813, of his Lives oj Emifient Men.

The book has originated in my conviction of the great historical importance of Hobbes as a thinker on philosophical and psychological problems, and in my appreciation of the value of his work in stimulating reflection. The plan of the book has been determined by my experience in reading the works of philosophers with classes in the history of philosophy. I have found critical introductions to be more of an evil than a good, because they are naturally read first, and thus make an immediate and uncolored impression by the author impossible. The same is true of notes added as a commentary to the text. I have therefore omitted both the introduction and notes customary in books of this kind. In their place, I have collated passages from the writings of Hobbes, which serve to supplement and clarify the text. By this means the book has been made to present practically all that Hobbes has contributed to the main questions of philosophy and psychology. I have omitted in the selections the deiv PREFACE

tails of his mathematical, physical, and political theories. The list of his writings, which follows Aubrey's account of his life, shows the extent and variety of his literary activity. For critical discussions of Hobbes, the reader is referred to G. C. Robertson's Hobbes and his article on Hobbes in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, and to the bibliography in E. H. Sneath's Ethics of Hobbes.

I wish to express here my thanks to Professor Norman Wilde of the University of Minnesota for the many valuable suggestions he made while the book was in preparation, and to Miss Ethel C. Brill for the help she has given me in reading the proof and in indexing the selections from the Elements of Philosophy.

Frederick J. E. Woodbridge.

Columbia University, January, 1903.

Contents

Preface Hi

Life of Thomas Hobbes by John Aubrey ... vii

List of the Writings of Thomas Hobbes .... xxxv Selections from the Elements of Philosophy concerning

Body I~76

Chapter I. Of Philosophy 1

II. Of Name9 . 13

III. Of Propositions 26

IV. Of Syllogism 36

V. Of Erring, Falsity, and Captions ... 39

VI. Ot Method '. 46

Selections from Leviathan . . . . . 77-379

The Epistle Dedicatory 79

The Introduction 81

Chapter I. Of Sense 84

1. Supplement from Elements of Philosophy,

Chapter XXV 86

II. Supplement from Human Nature, Chapter II, 95

II. Of Imagination 101

III. Of the Consequence or Train of Imaginations 113

IV. Of Speech 120

V. Of Reason and Science .... 131

VI. Of the Interior Beginnings of Voluntary Motions, commonly called the Passions; and

the Speeches by which they are expressed 143

Supplement from Liberty and Necessity . 165

VII. Of the Ends, or Resolutions of Discourse . 172 VIII. Of the Virtues commonly called Intellectual;

and their contrary Defects . . . 178 IX. Of the Several Subjects of Knowledge . 193 X. Of Power, Worth, Dignity, Honour, and Worthiness ....... 196

XI. Of the Difference of Manners ... 208

XII. Of Religion 217

XIII. Of the Natural Condition of Mankind as concerning their Felicity and Misery . . 232

CONTENTS

Parallel Chapter from Philosophical Rudiments,

Chapter I ..... 239 Of the First and Second Natural Laws, and of

Contract 251

Parallel Chapter from Philosophical Rudiments,

Chapter II 265

Of other Laws of Nature .... 278 Parallel Chapter from Philosophical Rudiments,

Chapter III 294

Of Persons, Authors, and Things Personated 313 Of the Causes, Generation, and Definition of a

Commonwealth ..... 319

Of the Rights of Sovereigns by Institution . 325

Of the Kindom of God by Nature . . 342 Of what is Necessary for a Man's Reception

into the Kingdom of Heaven . . . 356

Review and Conclusion 368

. .380

XIV.

XV.

XVI.

XVII.

XVIII.

XXXI.

XLIII.

LIFE OF MR. THOMAS HOBBES OF MALMSBURIE.

BY

JOHN AUBREY.

LECTORI.

Tis religion to performe the will of the dead. I therefore dischardge my promise, performing the last office to my hon'rd friend Mr. T. H. Since nobody knew so many particulars of his life as myselfe, he desired that if I survived him, it should be handed to posterity by my hands, w'ch I declare and avow to doe ingenuously and impartially. One sayes that when a learned man dyes, a great deal of learning dyes with him. He was Humeri ingenii, never dry. Amongst innumerable observations which deserved to be sett downe, these few that have not escaped my memory, I humbly offer to the present age and posterity, tanquam tabulam naufragii; as plankes and lighter things swimme, and are preserved, whereas the more weighty sinke and are lost. And as with the light after sun-sett, at which time it is clear, by and by comes the crepuscule, then totall darkness; in like manner is it with matters of antiquitie. Men thinke, because everybody remembers a memorable accident shortly after it is done, 'twill never be forgotten, w'ch for want of entering, at last is drowned in oblivion. This reflection has been a hint, that by my meanes many antiquities have been rescued from oblivion and preserved, I myselfe now inclining to be ancient.

viii LECTORI

For that I am so minute, I declare I never intended it, but setting downe in my rude draught every thing, with purpose, upon review, to retrench what was superfluous and triviall, I shewed it to some friends of mine (who also were of Mr. Hobbes's acquaintance) whose judgments I much value ; who gave their opinion, and 'twas clearly their judgement, to let all stand; for though to some at present it might appeare too triviall ; yet hereafter 'twould not be slighted, but passe for antiquity. And besides I have precedents of reverend writers to plead, who have in some lives veiled things as triviall, nay, the sayings and actions of good woemen. I am also to beg pardon of the Reader, for a long digression, viz. Malmesbury and Gorambery, but this also was advised, as the only way to preserve them. I hope its novelty and pleasantness will make compensation for its length.

Yours,

J. A.

It was usual with the writers of the lives of the ancient philosophers, in the first place, to speake of their lineage ; and they tell us that in processe of time severall illustrious families accounted it their glory to be derived from such or such a Sapiens. Why now should that method be omitted in this Historiola of our Malmesbury Philosopher, who though but of plebeian extraction, his renowne has and will give brightnesse to his name and familie, which hereafter may arise and flourish in riches, and may justly take it an honour to be of kin to this worthy person, so famous for his learning, both at home and abroad.

Thomas Hobbes, whose life I write, was second son of Mr. Thomas Hobbes, vicar of Charlton and Westport, juxta Malmesbury. — Thomas, the father, was one of the

LIFE OF HOBBES ix

ignorant Sr. Johns of Q. Elizabeth's time, could only read the prayers of the church, and the homilies ; and valued not learning, as not knowing the sweetness of it. He had an elder brother whose name was Francis, a wealthy man. and alderman of the borough ; by profession a glover, which is a great trade here, and in times past much greater. Having no child, he contributed much to, or rather altogether maintained, his nephew Thomas, at Magdalen-hall, in Oxon ; and when he dyed gave him agellum, a pasture, called Gasten-ground, lying neer to the horse-faire, worth 16 or 18 poundes per annum; the rest of his landes he gave to his nephew Edmund.

Thomas, the vicar of Westport, maried . . . Middleton, of Brackenborough, (of a yeomanly family) by whom he had two sonnes, and one daughter. Edmund, his eldest, was bred up to his uncle's profession of a glover. Edmund was about two yeares elder than his brother Thomas (philosopher), whose life I now w r rite, and something resembled him in face, but fell much short of him in his intellect, though he was a good plain understanding countryman. He had been bred at schoole with his brother; could have made theme, and verse, and understood a little Greek to his dyeing day. He dyed about 13 yeares since, aetat. circiter 80.

This Edmund had only one son named Francis, and two daughters maried to countrymen (renters) in the neighbourhood. Francis pretty well resembled his uncle Thomas, especially about the eie; and probably had he had a good education might have been ingeniose ; but he drowned his witt in ale. He was left by his father and uncle Thomas, 8olib. or better per annum, but he was an ill husband. He dyed about two yeares after his father, and left five children.

Westport is the parish without the west-gate, w'ch is x LIFE OF HOBBES

now demolished ; which gate stood on the neck of land that joines Malmesbury to Westport. Here was, before the late warres, a very pretty church, consisting of a nave and aisles, which took up the whole area, dedicated to St. Mary ; and a fair spire-steeple, with five tuneable bells, which, when the towne was taken (about 1644) by Sir W. Waller, were melted (converted into ordinance), and the church pulled downe to the ground, that the enemie might not shelter themselves against the garrison. The steeple was higher than that now standing in the borough, which much adorned the prospect. The windowes were well painted, and in them were inscriptions that declared much antiquitie ; now is here rebuilt a church like a stable.

Thomas Hobbes, Malmesburiensis Philosophus, was borne at his father's house in Westport, being that extreme house that pointes into, or faces the horse-fayre ; the farthest house on the left hand as you goe to Tedbury, leaving the church on the right. To prevent mistakes, and that hereafter may rise no doubt what house was famous for this famous man's birth; I doe here testifie that in April, 1659, his brother Edmund went with me into this house, and into the chamber where he was borne. Now things begin to be antiquated, and I have heard some guesse it might be at the house where his brother Edmund lived and dyed ; but this is so, as I here deliver it. This house was given by Thomas, the vicar, to his daughter . . . whose daughter or grand-daughter possessed it, when I was there. It is a firme house, stone-built, and tiled, of one roome, with a buttery (or the like) below, and two chambers above. It was the innermost where he first drew breath.

The day of his birth was April the fifth, A'o. D'ni. 1588, on a Fryday morning, w'ch that year was Good Fryday. His mother fell in labour with him upon the

LIFE OF HOBBES xi

fright of the invasion of the Spaniards ; he told me himself between the hours of four and six ; but by rectification his nativity is found to be at . . . His horoscope is tf having in it a satellitium of 5 of the 7 planets. It is a maxime in astrology that a native that hath a satellitium in his ascendent proves more eminent in his life than ordinary.

At four yeares old he went to schoole in Westport church, till eight; at that time he could read well, and number four figures. Afterwards he went to schoole to Malmesbury, to Mr. Evans, the minister of the towne, and afterwards to Mr. Robert Latimer, a young man of about nineteen or twenty, newly come from the University, who then kept a private schoole in Westport, where the broad place is, next door north from the smyth's shop, opposite to the Three Cuppes, (as I take it.) He was a batchelor and delighted in his scholar, T. H.'s company, and used to instruct him, and two or three ingeniose youths more, in the evening till nine o'clock. Here T. H. so well profited in his learning, that at fourteen years of age, he went away a good school-scholar to Magdalen-hall, in Oxford. It is not to be forgotten, that before he went to the University, he had turned Euripidis Medea out of Greeke into Latin Iambiques, which he presented to his master. Mr. H. told me that he would fain have had them, to have seen how he did grow in . . . ; twenty odde yeares agoe I isearcht all Mr. Latimer's papers, but could not find them; the good houswives had sacrificed them, the oven (pies) had devoured them. I have heard that when he was a boy he was playsome enough, but withall he had then a contemplative melancholinesse ; he would gett him into a corner, and learn his lesson by heart presently. His haire was black, and the boys, his schoolfellows, were wont to call him Crowe.

xii LIFE OF HOBBES

This Mr. Latimer was a good Grecian, and the first that came into our parts since the Reformation. He was afterwards minister of Malmesbury, and from thence preferred to a better living of iool. per ann. or more, at Leigh-de-la-mere within this hundred.

At Oxford he used, in the summer time especially, to rise very early in the morning, and would tye the leadencounters (w'ch they used in those dayes at Christmas at post and pay re) with strings, which he did draw through birdlime, and bayte them with parings of cheese, and the jack-da wes would spye them a vast distance up in the aire, as far as Osney-abbey, and strike at the bayte, and so be ... in the string, w'ch the wayte of the counter would make cling about their wings. He did not much care for logick, yet he learned it, and thought himself a good disputant. He tooke great delight there to go to the book-binders' and stationers' shops, and lye gaping on mappes, of which he takes notice in his life written by himself, in verse :

After he had taken his Batchelor of Arts' degree, the then Principall of Magdalen-hall recommended him to his young lord when he left Oxon, who did believe that he should profitt more in his learning, if he had a scholar of his owne age to wayte on him, than if he had the information of a grave doctor ; he was his lordship's page, and rode a hunting and hawking with him, and kept his privy-purse. By this way of life he had almost forgott his Latin. He then bought him bookes of an Amsterdam

LIFE OF HOBBES xiii

print, that he might carry in his pocket (particularly Caesar's Commentaries) w'ch he did read in the lobbey, or ante-chamber, whilst his lord was making his visits.

The Lord Chancellor Bacon loved to converse with him. He assisted his Lordship in translating severall of his essayes into Latin, one I well remember is that, Of the Greatness of Cities : the rest I have forgott. His Lordship was a very contemplative person, and was wont to contemplate in his delicious walkes at Gorambery, and dictate to Mr. Bushell, or some other of his gentlemen, that attended him with ink and paper ready to sett downe presently his thoughts. His Lordship would often say that he better liked Mr. Hobbes's taking his thoughts, than any of the others, because he understood what he wrote, which the others not understanding, my Lord would many times have a hard task to make sense of what they writt.

It is to be remembered that about these times, Mr. T. H. was much addicted to musique, and practised on the bass-viol.

This summer [1634] Mr. T. H. came into his native country to visitt his friends, and amongst others he came to see his old schoolmaster, Mr. Rob. Latimer, at Leigh-de-la-mere, when I was then a little youth at school, in the church, newly entered into my grammar by him. Here was the first place and time that ever I had the honour to see this worthy, learned man, who was then pleased to take notice of me, and the next day came and visited my relations. He was a proper man, briske, and in very good equipage ; his ha^re was then quite black. He stayed at Malmesbury, and in the neighbourhood, a weeke or better ; 'twas the last time that ever he was in Wiltshire.

He was forty yeares old before he looked on geomxiv LIFE OF HOBBES

etry, w'ch happened accidentally; being in a gentleman's library in . . . Euclid's Elements lay open, and it was the 47 Prop. Lib. I. So he reads the proposition, "By G — ," says he, "this is impossible !" So he reads the demonstration of it, w'ch referred him back to another, w'ch he also read, et sic deinceps, that at last he was demonstratively convinced of that truth. This made him in love with geometry. I have heard Sr. Jonas Moore (and others) say that 'twas a great pity he had not begun the study of the mathem. sooner; for such a working head and curious witt would have made great advancement in it. Had he done so, he would not have layn so open to his learned mathematicall antagonists. But one may say of him, as one sayes of Jos. Scaliger, that where he erres, he erres so ingeniosely, that one had rather erre with him, than hitt the marke with Clavius. I have heard Mr. Hobbes say, that he was wont to draw lines on his thigh, and on the sheetes abed, as also multiply and divide. He would often complain, that algebra (though of great use) was too much admired, and so followed after that it made men not contemplate and consider so much the nature and power of lines, w'ch was a great hinderance to the growth of geometrie; for that though algebra did rarely well and quickly, and easily in right lines, yet 'twould not bite in solid geometrie.

After he began to reflect on the interest of the King of England, as touching his affaires between him and the Parliament, for ten yeares together his thoughts were much, or almost altogether unhinged from the mathematiques; but chiefly intent on his "De Cive", and after that on his "Leviathan", w'ch was a great putt-back to his mathematicall improvement: quod N. B. for in ten yeares' (or better) discontinuance of that study (especially) one's mathcmatiques will become very rusty.

LIFE OF HOBBES xv

"When the Parliament sate that began in April, 1640, and was dissolved in May following, and in which many pointes of the regall power, which were necessary for the peace of the kingdome and safety of his Majestie's person, were disputed and denied, Mr. Hobbes wrote a little treatise in English, wherein he did sett forth and demonstrate, that the sayd power and rights were inseparably annexed to the sovereignty, which sovereignty they did not then deny to be in the King ; but it seems understood not, or would not understand, that inseparability. Of this treatise, though not printed, many gentlemen had copies, which occasioned much talk of the author; and had not his Majestie dissolved the Parliament, it had brought him in danger of his life."*

Mem. he told me that Bp. Manwaring (of St. David's) preached his doctrine; for which, among others, he was sent prisoner to the Tower. Then thought Mr. Hobbes, it is time now for me to shift for myselfe, and so went into France, and resided at Paris. As I remember, there were others likewise did preach his doctrine. This little MS. treatise became his book "De Cive", and at last grew to be so formidable, and . Leviathan ; the manner of writing of which booke was thus. He walked much and contemplated, and he had in the head of his cane a pen and ink-horne, carried always a note-booke in his pocket, and as soon as a thought darted, he presently entered it into his booke, or otherwise might have lost it. He had drawne the designe of the booke into chapters, &c. he knew whereabout it would come in. Thus that booke was made.

"He wrote and published the Leviathan far from the

*Mr. Hobbes Considered, p. 4. printed 1662, since reprinted. 1680, by W. Crooke. [The subsequent quotations by Aubrey are

from the same source.!

xvi LIFE OF HOBBES

intention either of disadvantage to his Majestie, or to flatter Oliver (who was not made Protector till three or four yeares after) on purpose to facilitate his returne ; for there is scarce a page in it that he does not upraid him.

' 'Twas written in the behalfe of the faithfull subjects of his Majestie, that had taken his part in the war, or otherwise done their utmost endeavour to defend his Majestie's right and person against the rebells : whereby, having no other meanes of protection, nor (for the most part) of subsistence, were forced to compound with your masters, and to promise obedience for the saving of their lives and fortunes, which in his booke he hath affirmed, they might lawfully doe, and consequently not bear arms against the victors. They had done their utmost endeavour to performe their obligation to the King, had done all they could be obliged unto; and were consequently at liberty to seeke the safety of their lives and livelihood wheresoever, and without treachery.

"His Majestie was displeased with him (at Paris) for a while, but not very long, by means of some complayning of, and misconstruing his writing. But his Majestie had a good opinion of him, and sayd openly, that he thought Mr. Hobbes never meant him hurt.

"Before his booke 'De Homine' came forth, nothing of the optiques writt intelligibly. As for the Optiques of Vitellio, and severall others, he accounts them rather geometry than optiques.

"So also of all other arts ; not every one that brings from beyond seas a new gin, or other janty devise, is therefore a philosopher. For if you reckon that way, not only apothecaries and gardeners, but many other sorts of workmen will put in for, and get the prize.

"Then, when I see the gentlemen of Gresham College

LIFE OF HOBBES xvii

apply themselves to the doctrine of motion (as Mr. Hobbes has done, and will be ready to helpe them in it, it they please, and so long as they use him civilly), I will looke to know some causes of naturall events from them, and their register, and not before ; for nature does nothing but by motion.

"The reason given by him, why the drop of glass so much wondered at, shivers into so many pieces, by breaking only one small part of it, is approved for probable, and registered in their colledge : but he has no reason to take it for a favour, because hereafter the invention may be taken, by that means, not for his, but theirs.

"As for his self-praise, they can have very little skill in morality, who cannot see the justice of commending a man's selfe. as well as of anything else, in his own defence.

"Then for his morosity and peevishnesse, with which some asperse him, all that know him familiarly, know the contrary. It is true, that when vain and ignorant young scholars, unknown to him before, come to him on purpose to argue with him, and fall into indiscrete and uncivill expressions, and he then appeare not well contented, it was not his morosity, but their vanity, which should be blamed."

Anno 1650 or 1651, he returned into England and lived most part in London, in Fetter-lane, where he writ, or finished his booke "De Corpore", which came out Anno ... in Latin, and then in English, and writt his lessons against the Savilian Professors at Oxon.

About this time (1655 or 1656) he settled the piece of land, given to him by his uncle, upon his nephew Francis for life, the remainder to his nephew's eldest son, Thomas Hobbes ; he also not long after discharged a mortgage of two hundred pounds, besides the interest thereof, with xviii LIFE OF HOBBES

which his nephew Francis (a careless husband) had incumbered his estate.

He was much in London till the restauration of his Majesty, having here convenience not only of bookes, but of learned conversation, as Mr. J. Selden, Dr. Wm. Harvey, J. Vaughan, &c. whereof anon in the catalogue of his acquaintance. I have heard him say, that in my Lord's house, in Derbyshire, there was a good library, and bookes enough for him, and his Lordship stored the library with what bookes he thought fitt to be bought ; but he sayd, the want of good conversation was a very great inconvenience, and that though he conceived he could order his thinking as well perhaps as another, yet he found a great defect : methinkes in the country, in long time, for want of good conversation, one's understanding and invention grow mouldy.

Amongst other of his acquaintance, I must not forget our common friend, Mr. Samuel Cowper, the prince of limners of this last age, who drew his picture as like as art could afford, and one of the best pieces that ever he did; which his Majesty, at his returne, bought of him, and conserves as one of his greatest rarities in his closet, at Whitehall.

The winter-time of 1659 he spent in Derbyshire; in March following was the dawning of the coming in of our gracious sovereign, and in April the Aurora. It happened about two or three dayes after his Majesty's happy returne, that as he was passing in his coach through the Strand, Mr. Hobbes was standing at Little Salisbury-house gate, (where his Lord then lived,) the King espied him, putt off his hatt very kindly to him, and asked him how he did. About a week after he had oral conference with his Majesty and Mr. S. Cowper, where, as he sat for his picture, he was diverted by Mr.

LIFE OF HOBBES xix

Hobbes's pleasant discourse. Here his Majesty's favours were redintegrated to him, and order was given that he should have free accesse to his Majesty, who was always much delighted in his witt and smart repartees. The witts at Court were wont to bayte him ; but he would make his part good, and feared none of them. The King would call him the Beare : Here comes the Beare to be bayted. He was marvellous happy and ready in his replies, and that without rancour, (except provoked) ; but now I speake of his readiness in replies as to witt and drollery. He would say, that he did not care to give, neither was he adroit at, a present answer to a serious quaere ; he had as lieve they should have expected an extemporary solution to an arithmeticall probleme, for he turned, and winded, and compounded in philosophy, politiques, &c. as if he had been at mathematicall worke ; he always avoided, as much as he could, to conclude hastily.

In 1659, and some yeares before, his lord was at Little Salisbury-house (now turned into the Middle-Exchange), where he wrote, among other things, a poeme in Latin hexameter and pentameter, on the Encroachment of the Clergie (both Roman and Reformed) on the Civil Power. I remember I saw there five hundred verses and more. He did read Cluverius's Historia Universalis, and made up his poeme from thence. His place of meditation was then in the portico in the garden. He sayd that he sometimes would sett his thoughts upon researching and contemplating, always with this proviso, that he very much and deeply considered one thing at a time, — sc. a weeke or sometimes a fortnight. There was a report (and surely true) that in Parliament, not long after the King was settled, some of the Bishops made a motion, to have the good old gentleman burned for a xx LIFE OF HOBBES

heretique ; which he hearing, feared that his papers might be searched by their order, and he told me that he had burned part of them. I have received word from his amanuensis and executor, that he remembers there were such verses, for he wrote them out, but knowes not what became of them, unless he presented them to Judge Vaughan, or burned them, as I did seeme to intimate. (But I understand since by W. Crooke, that he can retrieve a great many of them.)

From 1660, till the time he last went into Derbyshire, he spent most part of his time in London, at his Lord's, viz. at Little Salisbury-house, then Queen-street, lastly Newport-house ; following his contemplation and study. He contemplated and invented in the morning, but penned in the afternoon.

In 1664, I sayd to him, "Methinkes 'tis pity, that you that have such a cleare reason and inventive head did never take into consideration, the learning of the lawes," and I endeavoured to persuade him to it ; but he answered that he was not like to have life enough left, to goe through with such a long and difficult task. I then presented him, in order thereunto, and to draw him on, the Lord Ch. Bacon's Elements of the Lawe (a thin 4to.) which he was pleased to accept, and the next time I came to him he shewed me therein, two cleare paralogisms, which I am heartily sorry are now out of my remembrance.