Front matter
Gass Book
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Preface
This volume is designed to trace concisely but clearly the History and Principles of the Presbyterian Church from the time of Henry VIII. to the close of the General Assembly of 1903. The effort has been to present the facts in such history, and note their influence; meanwhile, to give special attention to the all-important phase of the inner Christian life of the Church. In ascertaining the knowledge in respect to the latter subject, attention has been directed, as occasion required, to the lives and labors of leading men in the ministry, as well as laymen, around whom clustered influences for good, that often extended far and wide in their respective communities, and even to the Church at large.
The author has availed himself of highly important and original documents pertaining to the Congregationalists and Presbyterians during the Colonial period. (See authorities consulted. )
When preparing his "Four Hundred Years of American History," the attention of the author was often drawn to the influence of the Presbyterian Church during the last half century of the Colonial times and also during the current growth of our national life. This influence was felt upon the domestic and Christian as well as upon the political life of the people. In our country, governed as it is by representatives elected by the people themselves, the moral connection between political and church life is consistent and peculiarly intimate. It therefore comes within the scope of this history to trace the influences, good or bad, of the events and policies, whereby the condition of public affairs has incidentally aided the progress of the Church, and sometimes had a retarding effect, as in the case of war or of financial or industrial disturbances whereby all the citizens were more or less affected.
The rule has been to record only those facts which have
VI PREFACE.
had influence, and to present them in such fulness that the reader may easily see their bearings upon the subject in hand, and also to mould the history into a consecutive narrative, in order that the transition from one subject to another may be easily seen.
The reader will learn from its inner Christian life that it has always been a missionary church; that its principles of religious liberty repudiate absolutely the assumption of civil authorities to interfere in any respect zvhatever in religious affairs, but, on the other hand, to confine themselves strictly to protect the religious rights of all the citizens, without reference to matters of their belief.
This volume is written in the hope of inducing intelligent Presbyterians of both sexes, especially the middleaged and the younger portion, to become familiar with the remarkable history of their own church, in its early trials, and the great leading principles of its church polity, by which the rights of the people — the church members — have ever been recognized and respected, and that while most strenuous in its adherence to the essential doctrines of the Gospel, yet in respect to non-essentials ever liberal.
The illustrations consist of the portraits of some of the Presbyterian worthies who did so much to promote the cause of Christianity by their labors within their own Church. They were the men who, being efficiently supported by brother ministers of lesser note, were enabled, in the latter part of the last century and the first half of this, to lay the foundations of the present benevolent institutions of the Church, which to-day are so grandly exerting influence for good. Many others of these noble men have also been noticed in brief sketches under the title of "Presbyterian Worthies," who, working in unison, though often in different spheres, had the same object in view.
NOTE: At the bottom of each picture are numbers designating the page in the book on which the person's name is mentioned. J. H. P.
THE FOLLOWING AUTHORITIES HAVE BEEN
CONSULTED.
Historians of the Presbyterian Church: Rev. Drs. Charles Hodge, Richard Webster, Robert Davidson, Robert Thompson, and Lenord W. Bacon (the last two, VI., XIII. Ch. Hist. Series). Dr. E. H. Gillett, 2 vols., an admirable work, revised in 1864. Prof. Charles A. Briggs, American Presbyterianism, covering the Colonial period. The latter history has the merit of being greatly enriched by the use of original manuscript documents, which were ''unknown to previous historians" [of the Presbyterian Church], "with the single exception of those" [that were made public] "of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts." (See p. 94 of this volume.)
Prof. Briggs, during a sojourn in Great Britain in 1884, availed himself of an opportunity in a dozen or more libraries — secular and ecclesiastical — to search for manuscript reports and documents that pertained to the Congregational and Presbyterian churches in America during the Colonial period. All the documents having a bearing on that subject he had transcribed under careful supervision, and afterward deposited the copies in convenient volumes in the Library of Union Theological Seminary, New York City. Portions of these documents were published for the first time in an Appendix — pp. L- CXXII. — to American Presbyterianism.
Drs. Robert Baird, "Religion in America"; Charles W. Baird, "Huguenot Emigration." Bishop Meade, "Old Churches of Virginia." Benedict, "History of the Baptists." Rev. Drs. Francis Hawks, "Episcopal Church in Virginia and North Carolina"; William H. Foote, "Sketches of Virginia"; Abel Stevens, "History of Methodism"; Sprague's "Annals of the American Pulpit"; "The Briggs Heresy Case," by Dr. John J. McCook, and the other documents pertaining to the same.
Chapter I. Page
American Presbyterianism. — Parity of the Ministry. — Elders or Presbyters. — The Bishops. — Paul and Timothy, Commissioners. — The Reformers on Church Government. — Union of Church and State. — The Prelatical Form of Church Government I
CHAPTER II. The Reformation in England
Magna Charta. — Wycklif and Tyndale's Translations. — Englishmen's Rights. — The People's Voice in Church Government. — Different Forms of Which. — Henry VIII. as Head of the Church. — Progress of the English People. — The Prelatical System. — The Puritan. — Union of Church and State in England. — The Exiles Abroad. — What They Learned 9
Presbyterians and Puritans in Henry VIII.'s Reign.
page.
Confessions of Faith. — The Two Parties. — The Heroic Age. — Harmony of Beliefs. — The XXIX. Articles. . . 31
CHAPTER VI. Presbyterians in the Reigns of Elizabeth and James
The Formation of a Presbytery. — The Independents Unorganized. — The Primitive Church Self-supporting. — King James — His Character. — James and the General Assembly. — The Influence of the Bishops. — Hopes Disappointed. — Migrations to Ireland. — The Culdee Church. — The Translation of the Bible 36
CHAPTER VIL Sabbath Desecration — The Solemn League and Covenant.
The Book of Sports. — Influence of the Sabbath. — The Continental Sabbath. — The Solemn League and Covenant. — Why Were the Bishops Feared? — Effects of Trials and Persecutions. — Presbyterian Household Training. . 46
CHAPTER VIII. Westminster Confession — Events Connected Therewith
The Parliamentary Ordinance. — Westminster Assembly. — Directory for Public Worship. — The Members of the Assembly. — Its Character. — Civil Commotions. — Apostolic Succession — Questions Thereon. — Cromwell's Doings. — The New Parliament. — The Divine Right for Church Government. — Plan for a State Church. . . 55
CONTENTS. XI
CHAPTER IX. Migrations to the Colonies — Congregational and Presbyterian
page.
Puritans in Virginia. — Policy of the Virginia Company. — Plymouth Colony. — A Presbyterian Church Organized. — Why the Presbyterians were Liberal. — Limited Influence of the Synod. — The Constitution of the Congregational Church. — Migrations of Presbyterians to New York. — Christian Brotherhood Practised. — Statement of Governor Andros. Influence of the Act of Toleration. . 66
Chapter X
Contrasts in Landholdings — Cavaliers — Elders as Worthies.
Royalists. — Berkeley's Prayer. — Why the Enmity ©f the Clergy. — The Charter for Maryland. — The Liberal Policy. — The Repentant Chaplain. — Presbyterian Elders and Worthies. — Doughty and Hill. 76
CHAPTER XL
Francis Makemie — Presbyterianism in Several Colonies.
Francis Makemie. — His Business Talents. — The Memorial Church. — A Stanch Defender of Religious Liberty. — A Presbyterian Church Organized. — Makemie's Trial. — Presbyterianism in New Jersey — In Delaware and Pennsylvania. — In South Carolina. — Missionaries from New England. — A Colony Formed on the Isthmus of Darien. 82
Chapter XII
Presbytery Constituted. — The First Missionary Society. — "Heads of Department." — A Society for Propagating the Gospel. — Difficulties and Progress. — Introduction of the Eldership 91
XII CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XIII. Persecutions and Trials
page.
A Church and Parsonage Seized. — Bribery and Trickery. — The Case of the First Presbyterian Church. — A Law Misapplied 99
CHAPTER XIV. Formation of a Synod
Missionary Funds. — Fraternal Intercourse. — Test and Schism Acts. — William Tennent. — The First Log College. — Guarding the Faith. — The Effects of the Adopting Act. — Liberal and Strict Subscription. — Presbyterians in Maine. — Transfer of the Log College. — Princeton College. — The Educational Fund. — The Leading Points of Influence 107
CHAPTER XV. Origin of Presbyterianism in Virginia
Morris' Reading-House. — Persecutions and Petty Annoyances. — The Name Presbyterian. — Further Annoyances. 121
CHAPTER XVI. The Log Colleges
The Bible Studied as a Whole. — The Two Academies — Hampden — Sidney. — Augusta Academy. — Theology Taught Separately. — Private Classical Schools. — Schools Beyond the Alleghanies (North). — Germs of Two Colleges — Jefferson and Washington. — Study on Two Lines. — The Religious Influence. — Schools beyond the Alleghanies (South). — Greeneville College 127
CONTENTS. XIII
CHAPTER XVII. Presbyterian Settlements in the Shenandoah Valley
PAGE.
Letters of the Synod and Governor Gooch. — Presbyterians in North Carolina. — Mission of Rev. William Robinson. — Dr. Samuel Davies. — An Incident. — The Presbyterians of Hanover County Specially Hated. — Modes of Levying Church Rates. — The Mecklenburg Declaration. — A Sad History 137
CHAPTER XVIII. Revivals — Division and Reunion
Moravians and Pietists. — Influence of Pietism. — Differences of Opinion. — The Old Side. — New Side. — Division of the Synod. — Zeal for Religion. — The Reunion. — Long Island Churches 149
CHAPTER XIX. Separation of Church and State in Virginia
The Half-Way Covenant. — Why the Harsh Intolerance in Virginia. — The Vagrant in Connecticut and New York. — Illiberal Laws in Virginia. — Freedom from Ecclesiastical Clannishness. — Grades of Ministerial Education. — Severe Conflicts. — Efforts to Reform Clerical Morals. — Preachers Appointed by the Crown. — English Church Established. — Influence of an Educated Ministry. — Conflicts in Respect to Salaries. — A Great Principle Established 159
CHAPTER XX. Separation of Church and State — Continued
The Struggle Begins. — Committee on Religion and Morality. — The Petitions; The Demand as a Right. — Upon Whom Fell the Burden of the Conflict? — The Legislature Met on Its Own Ground. — Objectionable Laws Repealed. —
XIV CONTENTS.
PAGE.
Prejudices Roused. — Tories. — Whigs. — Quakers. — The General Assessment. — Another Memorial. — Defects in the Law of Repeal. — Security for Religious Rights Demanded. — Protest against Incorporating the Episcopal Church. — General Assessment Again. — Effects of Petitions. — Contests in Respect to Glebes. — A Half-Century of Intolerance Remembered. — An Apology Urged. — Who Began the Movement and Secured the Result. — Religious Freedom and Patriotism. — Influence of the Measure in New England. — Slavery Opposed. — Personal Responsibility Recognized. — Self-Denial and Benevolence. — Influence of the Voluntary Principle. — A Nation's Moral Training 175
CHAPTER XXI. The Troublous Times
Patriotism. — Pastoral Letter. — The Evil Influence. — The Two Movements. — Kinds of Church Government. — A Comprehensive One. — Discordant and Rival States. . . 198
CHAPTER XXII. The General Assembly Arranged For
Increase of the Church. — Four Synods Organized. — The General Assembly Constituted. — The Address to President Washington; His Reply. — Doctrinal Truths Guarded. — A Christian Patriotism. — Ex-oMcio Members. — Voting by Orders. — Ecclesiastical Despotism. . . . 205
CHAPTER XXIII. Presbyterian Movements in the South
The Migrations. — The Three Pioneer Ministers. — Retarding Influences. — The Sabbath Desecrated. — The Surveyor; His News. — The Founding of a Church. — The Planters of the Church in Tennessee. — A Peculiar Type of Infidelity.— The Political Clubs. 214
CONTENTS. XV
CHAPTER XXIV. The Great Revival
page.
Rev. James McGready. — Irreligious Conditions. — Characteristics of the Revival. — Injurious Divisions. — The Influence of the Revival. — Camp Meetings. — Uneducated Men Licensed to Preach. — Cumberland Presbyterians. — Another Great Revival. — The Counterpart. — The Revival Extends. — The Contrast 224
CHAPTER XXV. The Way Prepared for the Plan of Union
Line of Migration. — Losses and Regains. — Interest in Missions. — Plan of Union Suggested. — Presbyterial Government Preferred. — Why the Churches Prospered. — Why Western New York Prospered. — Result of Christian Effort. — Effects of the Great Revival. — Standing Committees Appointed. — The Sad Interference. — Efforts in Favor of Temperance. — Reports on the Same. . . 235
CHAPTER XXVI. Presbyterian Worthies
Taggart, Dana, Morrison. — Blatchford, Nott, Porter. — Rodgers, Perrine, Romeyn, Spring. — Richards, Griffin. — Green, the Alexanders, Miller, Finley. — Janeway, Wilson, Skinner, Ely, Patterson. . . . . . . 246
CHAPTER XXVII. Presbyterian Worthies — Continued
Hoge, Rice. — John McMillan. — Porter, Power, Marquis, Dunlap, Ralston. — An Appreciative Estimate. — The Combined Influence 257
XVI CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XXVIII. Progress of the Church
page.
Formation of National Societies. — The Western. — Educational Societies, Their Union. — Duelling. — Opposition to Slavery, Deliverance on. — Francis Herron. — Revivals in the South. — Progress in Religion, How Promoted. — The Migration of a Church. — Prayer Meetings. — Union Meetings. — Drs. James Hall and S. E. McCorkle. . . . 265
CHAPTER XXIX. Progress of the Church — Continued
Drs. Ingles and Nevens. — Religious Interest in New Jersey. — Increase of the Church in New York State. — Dr. James Carnahan. — Associations and Presbyteries. — Religion West of the Genesee. — Immigration. — Co-operation ... 280
CHAPTER XXX. Settlements and Churches in the West
Settlement of Marietta. — Revs. Story, Lindsley, Hughes. — Cincinnati Founded. — The First Church Organized. — Settlements in the Reserve. — Ministers of the Presbytery of Ohio. — Rev. Joseph Badger. — Woman's Self-denying Labors. — Population and Preachers. . . 288
CHAPTER XXXI. Increase of the Church
Accessions from Other Bodies. — Reports on Revivals. — Board of Missions. — The Ex-oMcio Principle Suggested. — Efforts for an Educated Ministry. — Revivals in Colleges. — Theological Seminaries. — Churches in Need of Pastors. — Domestic Missionary Society. — Charleston Association, Its Action. — Psalmody, Intemperance, Sabbath Desecration. — Increasing Interest in Missions. — Deliverance on Slavery 301
CONTENTS. XVII
CHAPTER XXXII. Increase of the Church — Continued
page.
Plans for Placing the Bible in Every Family. — Increased Missionary Efforts. — Home Missionary Society Formed. — Influence of the First Address of the Committee. — Eastern Christians Interested. — Destitutions. — The Church in New Orleans and Mobile. — In Huntsville. — In Georgia, Carolinas, Florida. — Church beyond the Mountains 310
CHAPTER XXXIII. Theological Seminaries
Auburn Seminary. — Western or Allegheny. — Lane. — Centre of Population. — Religious Condition of the Great Valley. — Seminary at Maryville. — Oakland College. — Union Seminary, Virginia. — President Matthew Brown. . 318
CHAPTER XXXIV. Louisiana Purchased
Indian Missions in the Southwest. — In Georgia. — The Indians Removed. — Individual Influence. — Dr. Charles Coffin. — Dr. Isaac Anderson. — President of Maryville College. — The Migration of a Congregation, James White Stephenson. — Characteristic Zeal. — Gideon Blackburn. 326
CHAPTER XXXV. New Orleans — The Towns up the River
The People of New Orleans. — Elias Cornelius. — Sylvester Larned. — Religion in the Towns up the River. — Samuel Royce. — Educational Society. — The American Board. — The Action ex Officio 338
XVIII CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XXXVI. Numerous Revivals
page.
Revivals in Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. — In Kentucky, the Carolinas, and Georgia. — In Virginia. — The Sabbath, Sunday Mails. — The Famous Report on the Same. — Ratio of Representation in the Assembly. — Statistics of the Church 345
CHAPTER XXXVII. Societies — Churches — Colleges
Home Missions. — Organizing Churches. — Father Dickey. — Immigration of Farmers. — The Time of Commissions Limited. — The Church at the Capital of Indiana. — Rev. Isaac Reed. — Number of Churches and Ministers. — Missionaries in Illinois. — Illinois College 353
CHAPTER XXXVIII. Relation of Churches to Certain Presbyteries
Why the Interest in Missouri. — Religious Character of St. Louis. — The Tour of Samuel J. Mills. — Rev. Samuel Giddings. — Rev. Timothy Flint. — Reasons for the Migration. — A Number of Missionaries. — John Matthews. — Missions in Michigan. — Traits of Early Settlers. — Labors of Rev. John Monteith. — Mission at the Straits of St. Mary. — The Reports. — Wives of Missionaries. . 364
CHAPTER XXXIX. A Change of Policy
Progress of the Church. — The Awakened Interest. — The Change within Thirty Years. — Areas of Missionary Territory compared. — What Presbyteries Had at Stake. — Church Discipline. — Irresponsibility of Voluntary Societies. — The Assembly's Board, and of Education. — Elements That Caused Friction. — An Important Movement. — Scotch Presbyterians. — The Special Ground Taken. 380
CONTENTS. XIX
CHAPTER XL. Unsubstantiated Rumors
page.
Conflict of Theological Opinions.— New Measures.— Unjust Suspicions. — An Important Rule Adopted. — Ministers Ordained Injudiciously 39 2
CHAPTER XLI. The Trial of Albert Barnes
The Sermon. — Appeal to the Synod. — The Matter Submitted. — Elective Affinity. — Biblical Notes. — The Second Trial. — The Appeal to the Assembly. — Bible Study Promoted. — The Example Followed. — The Terms of Distinction. 399
Chapter XLII
Trial of Dr. LymAn Beecher.
A Feeling of Unrest. — The Recommendations. — Suspicions Disproved. — Dr. Beecher and Dr. Wilson. — The Charges Not Sustained. — Dr. Wilson Withdraws His Appeal. — Suggestive Considerations. — Abstract Phases of Thought. 408
CHAPTER XLIII. Measures Leading to the Division
The New and the Old School. — Conditions on Which Ministers Were Received. — The Charges in the Memorial. — The Protest Not Received. — The Act and Testimony. — Signers and Objectors to the Act. — A Convention Called. — The Effects of the Agitation. — Grievances. — Elective Affinity. — Changes of Opinion. — A Committee of Conference. — Misleading Statements. — Instructions Transcended. — Union Theological Seminary in New York City 416
XX CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XLIV. The Division of the Church
page.
Plans Lai" 1 for Future Action. — The Philadelphia Convention. — Us Recommendations. — A Special Grievance. — The Assembly of 1837. — Expression of Good Will, Reasons for Action. — An Ominous Vote. — Amicable Division Proposed. — Excision of Synods. — Dealing with Presbyteries. — Board of Missions. — The Protests. — Errors Acted Upon. — The Connecticut Missionary Society. — Sad Statistics. — Difficulties in Attending General Assemblies. — The Action on Slavery. — The Pastoral Circular. . 430
CHAPTER XLV. The Two Assemblies
Complaint and Acts of the Convention. — The Assembly of 1838. — The Crisis Had Come. — The Old School Assembly. — The Question of Slavery. — The New School Assembly. — Effort to Effect a Compromise. — The Two Civil Court Trials 448
CHAPTER XLVI. The Two Assemblies — Continued
Synods Dissolved. — Abbreviated Creeds. — Ad Interim Committee. — Two Plans for Mission Work. — An Indirect Influence. — Financial Disturbances 456
CHAPTER XLVII. The Two Assemblies — Continued
Protests and Criticisms. — The Adjustments. — The Work of Both Assemblies. — Aloof from Slavery Agitation — Conversions. — Difficulties in Co-operation. — The Secession of Synods. — The American Missionary Association. — The Revival of 1857 463
CONTENTS. XXI
CHAPTER XLVIII. The Two Assemblies — Continued
page.
A Decided Stand Taken. — A Change in the Mode of Conducting Missions. — The Old School Unhindered. — Emancipation — The Freedmen. — Innovations Attempted. — Triennial Assemblies. — Protests. — Singular Results. . 472
CHAPTER XLIX. The Reunion
Preparing for Reunion. — The Civil War. — Renewed Difficulties. — The Cry for Help. — The Committees on Reunion — the Basis. — Woman's Work. — Proffered Fraternity. — Synods Consolidated. — The Discipline Revised. — Statistics of Spiritual Progress. — The Presbyterial Centennial. — Church Periodical — Seminaries. — Revision Desired 480
CHAPTER L. Presbyterian Worthies
Edward Robinson, Philip Lindsley. — Charles Hodge. — William Adams. — Henry Boynton Smith. — Robert Jefferson Breckinridge. — W. G. T. Shedd. — Daniel Baker. — Henry Little 493
Chapter LI
Trial of Dr. Briggs.
The Professorship Founded. — The Outline of Study. — His Inaugural ; Action Thereon. — The First Trial by the Presbytery. — The Second Trial Exaustivo. — Reason as an Authority. — The Stress on Reason. — The Pentateuch and Isaiah. — Progressive Sanctification. — The Soul in the Middle State. — Second Probation 511
XXII CONTENTS.
Chapter LII. Page
Errors or Discrepancies in the Bible. — The Two Citations. — Prejudices Excited. — Two Classes. — Facts to Be Considered. — A Race Redemption. — The Minute Adopted. — Inerrancy of the Bible. — A New Phase. — The Protest. — The Explanatory Resolution. — Misapprehensions.— A Review. — Comments. — The Outcome. — Second Protest. — Union Seminary Independent. . . . . . . 529
CHAPTER LIII. Assemblies of 1894- 1899
Case of Professor Smith. — Comparison of Statistics. — Increased Contributions. — The Rule. — Home Missions. — Effects for Good on Two Lines. — An Eventful Period. — The General Assembly of 1899 545
Chapter LIV
Overtures on Triennial Assemblies. — The Assembly of 1899. — Patriots — Citizens and Christians 551
LIST OF PORTRAITS.
Jacob Harris Patton, A. M., Ph. D.
Rev. Samuel Davies, D. D. .
Rev. John Rodgers, D. D.
Rev. John McMillan, D. D. .
Rev. Archibald Alexander, D. D.
Rev. Eliphalet Nott, D. D. .
Rev. John Holt Rice, D. D. .
Rev. Francis Herron, D. D. .
Rev. Charles Coffin, D. D. .
Rev. James Carnahan, D. D., LL. D.
Rev. Gardiner Spring, D. D. .
Rev. Philip Lindsley, D. D. .
Rev. Charles Hodge, D. D. .
Rev. Lyman Beecher, D. D. .
Rev. Gideon Blackburn, D. D.
Rev. Matthew Brown, D. D., LL. D.
Rev. Albert Barnes
Rev. Robert J. Breckinridge, D. D., LL. D.
Rev. Edward Robinson, D. D., LL. D.
Rev. Henry Boynton Smith, D. D., LL. D.
FACING
Frontispiece
4 8
304 316 xxin
A POPULAR HISTORY
OF THE
PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA i.
To have a clear conception of the principles and organization of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America, it is essential to trace its origin in Europe, especially its history in Great Britain. From the latter country Presbyterian immigrants introduced into this land that form of church government and internal policy, which, in consequence of distinctive features, has been characterized as American Presbyterianism.
This denomination holds and practises the theory of a church government by elders or presbyters — these words being the same in meaning, while from the latter the name is derived. This form of government combines the democratic principle with the representative or republican, inasmuch as the church members elect the elders as their representatives, thus utilizing the wisdom, the influence, and the experience of their best men. It also brings into view two distinct features : one recognizing the parity of the ministry or clergy (page 1 8) , the other the right of the church members — in political phrase, the people — to have a voice in such government by means of lay representatives or elders of their own choosing.
The main principles in accordance with which the Presbyterian Church in the United States is governed were held and virtually acted upon by the reformed churches on the continent of Europe immediately after the commencement of the Reformation (151 7). This may be said of all those who held the parity of the ministry: the Huguenots in France, the Church of Holland, the Lutherans in Germany, and the churches in Geneva, Switzerland. The parity of the ministry was in contradistinction to the Roman Catholic hierarchy, or form of priestly rule, and the latter 's modification in the Church of England. Thus there was a radical difference in the mode of government between the reformed churches and the latter two. The parity of the clergy or ministry is based on our Lord's positive statement : " One is your Master even Christ ; and ye are brethren. "
Elders or Presbyters. — Whatever may have been the form of church government among the children of Israel, it is evident from the records thereof that the order of elders played an important part from the earliest times, even when they were in bondage in Egypt. These elders appear to have been heads of families or tribes, their authority being patriarchal or paternal; they were also, it would seem, representatives of the people at large (Ex. iii. 16, 18 and iv. 29-31). This order of rulers, evidently established by Divine authority, was extended and fostered by Moses, and kept up, it may have been, in a modified form during the kingly rule, and while they were captives at Babylon; and after their return to Judea was continued till the time of Christ. During all this time, as incidentally noted in the New Testament, the elders appear to have been associated in the government with the scribes and chief priests, but they were not of either order. The rulers of the synagogue were termed elders, they being elected because of their age — as the name implies — and other qualifications. The title was given to those who conducted the religious services of the synagogue, such as reading the Law, expounding its meaning and prayer. This form of government, naturally, passed over from the Jewish synagogue into the Christian churches that were organized among the converts from that faith, as well as among those from the Gentile world. At this early period of the church the presbyters or elders were "the regular teachers or pastors, preachers and leaders of the congregations — the term presbyter is no doubt of Jewish-Christian origin, a translation of the Hebrew title applied to the rules of the synagogue."
It was very natural that that form of church government should be transferred with modifications growing out of the existing circumstances to the Christian churches composed of Jewish converts, and afterward to those that were organized among the Gentile Christians. The Jewish people looked upon this mode of governing and of giving instruction in their synagogues as having the sanction of Divine authority.
The Bishops. — The word "bishop" — episkopos — (overseer) applies to the official duties of the elders or presbyters, as teachers or pastors of congregations. These terms were used interchangeably, they being synonymous, as when Paul sent from Miletus (Acts xx. 17, 28) to Ephesus and called the presbyters or elders of the church in that city. In his address to them in the 28th verse he says: "Take heed to yourselves and to all the flock in the which the Holy Spirit has made you bishops" — overseers — Greek episkopous. It will be noticed that these terms are in the plural, and the connection shows that they apply equally to the same persons — the elders, the presbyters or the bishops, the latter word expressing one phase of the official character of the persons in rule in the churches at Ephesus. These elders or presbyters appear to have been equal in authority, no one superior to another — this is in accordance with the parity of the ministry as announced by our Lord when he said, as has been noted, "All ye are brethren, I am Master." In one instance Paul (Phil. i. i) addresses the saints in Christ Jesus with the bishops and deacons — the plural form again. In this passage he does not use the terms presbyters or elders ; these different official designations were used one for the other, as in Acts xx., as just cited. The custom of thus naming the officers in the churches prevailed at that time ; and still further, these names being in the plural corroborate the theory that they were thus used because they were in meaning synonymous. Again, in Paul's charge to Titus (Titus ii. 5, 6) to appoint elders (presbyters) he uses the plural. Afterward in the same connection he defines what should be the qualifications of each one of these elders, but in speaking of the individual he uses the singular only. The office of the modern bishop of a diocese or district does not appear to be foreshadowed in these passages. "The office of the early bishops, when they became distinguished from other presbyters, was not at all a roving episcopate. It was a local or parochial episcopate or superintendency — as completely so as the office of any Congregational or Presbyterian pastor at the present day." {Prof. G. P. Fisher.) Paul and Timothy's Commissions. — When writing to Timothy (Tim. iv. 14) Paul urges him not to "neglect the gift that is in thee which was given thee by prophecy with the laying on of the hands of the presbytery (presbuteron — the eldership — referring to the ceremony that was used in ordaining or licensing a presbyter to preach the gospel. Paul also relates of himself (Acts xxii. 5) that by order of the eldership — perhaps of the Jewish sanhedrim — he was commissioned to go to Damascus on a persecuting errand. It will be noticed that in the case of licensing Timothy, it was not the laying on of the hands of one man as a bishop appointed for the purpose, but of the whole body of presbyters collectively.
The transition in the general mode of government from the Jewish Church into the Christian, was so natural and simple that there was no necessity to give an explanation of the process, hence the mode is mentioned only incidentally as being well known to those living at the time. This mode of government by elders had the Divine sanction in the Jewish Church, God being King and Master.
The Reformers on Church Government. — It was not strange in the great Reformation commencing in 15 17, when the prominent leaders became more and more familiar with the system of government that prevailed in the primitive church, as traced incidentally in the accounts given in the gospels and in the epistles or writings of the Apostles. They there learned of the parity of the ministry, and that the form of government by elders or representatives of the church members had passed over from the Jewish Church into that of the Christian. And also, that the latter did not depart from the usual form of government, but only separated themselves from their Jewish brethren, inasmuch as they accepted the spiritual truths proclaimed by Jesus in relation to himself and his mission as the Messiah, which truths the Jews rejected. They also learned that when Christian churches were formed among the Gentiles, the Apostles continued the system of church government already existing in the churches in Jerusalem. They learned still further from profane and ecclesiastical history, that in the course of ages, as the result of the union of Church and State, there grew up another form of church government, which was in violation of the principle, "All ye are brethren," and out of which arose a class of superiors in the church known as bishops. Those of the latter who lived in the cities gradually assumed precedence of their fellows living in the suburban districts — they claiming the title of archbishop or metropolitan. The simple and primitive government by presbyters, the representatives of the church members or people, was thus superseded by the unpaternal and unrighteous assumption of these ecclesiastics. This assumption did not end here, but in time culminated in the Papacy and its various grades of church rulers, to the entire exclusion of the lay representatives as found in the primitive church. The true Reformers, therefore, rejected the papal system of government as being unscriptural, and so constituted as to exalt certain men into positions in the church, not by the choice or votes of the church members, but by appointments often made by secular influence. This mode was contrary to the primitive form and to our Lord's fundamental injunction upon his disciples, that they "being brethren/' were not to usurp authority over one another. The Reformers universally rejected the papal form of church government, and even characterized its head as the "Anti-Christ," concerning whom, long ages before, prophecy had warned the saints.
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