Elements of history, ancient and modern

Front matter

800 7 oo

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K it/ J~l *M ^52» «ft

Preface

This volume is famished with a Chart of General History, a series of Tables of History, and a copious list of Questions, in order to facilitate its use. The method of using the work will be found simple and easy. After the student has attended to the three short sections on the Uses, Sources, and Divisions of History, it is recommended that he should study carefully the Chart of History with the use of the Description, Illustration, and Questions, (see page 313.) By this means he will have the general outlines of history, with the periods of the rise and fall of the principal states and empires, impressed on his mind ; and by having thus gained a comprehensive view of the whole ground, he will be prepared to study the particular parts with greater advantage. The Tables of Grecian, Roman, French, English, and American History are designed to be attended to in connection with the portions of the volume relating to the history of Greece, Rome, France, England, and the United States respectively. a vi PREFACE.

The outlines of history may be acquired with incomparably greater facility by the use of Charts and Tables, than by the perusal of volumes, independently of such aid ; and, what is of great importance, the information, thus obtained, will be so impressed on the mind as to be much more durable, than if acquired by any other method. By means of them one may easily trace the rise, progress, revolutions, decline, and fall of states and empires ; see what states have been contemporary, and what have existed at different periods ; take comprehensive views of the whole ground of history, and comparative views of the particular parts ; mark the succession of the different dynasties and sovereigns in the different kingdoms and empires ; learn the leading events of the several reigns and of different ages, and observe the periods when the most illustrious persons have flourished.

But for a knowledge of the internal condition and history of a state, the particular details of events, with their causes and consequences, and the exploits of individuals who have figured upon the theatre of the world, recourse must be had to other sources of information. In order, therefore, that the study of history may be pursued to the best advantage, and a proper attention be paid to the connection both of time and of subject, the use of charts should be united with that of historical narrative.

PREFACE. vii

As it would be impossible, in a volume of the size of this, to trace a regular series of events relating to all the states and empires that have flourished in the world, the chief attention of the author has been paid to a few of them ; those of which the history is of the greatest importance, particularly to American students, namely, Greece and Rome in ancient history, and France, England, and the United States, in modern. Brief notices, however, of various other states have been given, and also some short treatises on topics of importance in an introduction to the study of history.

Sacred and Ecclesiastical History has received some attention ; and the volume, will be found to afford, in addition to the details of general history, much information relating to religion, literature, and the progress of society.

In the preparation of the Elements, the author has endeavored to unite so much of reflection with the details of facts, as to assist the reader in forming correct views of the causes and consequences of events ; and in order to render the work more interesting, he has, in some instances, introduced short anecdotes and memorable observations of distinguished men on important occasions.

Every one, much conversant with history, must be aware of the frequent and often great diversity in the viii " PREFACE.

accounts given of the characters of men and events, even by authors of reputation. This diversity is to be attributed partly to the peculiar principles and prejudices of the historians, and partly to the contradictory statements in the original sources of history.

As the line of truth is in so many cases obscure and difficult to be discovered, the author cannot hope that he has in no instances fallen into error. It has, however, been his object to follow the best guides, and to give true impressions of the character of persons and transactions, so far as they came under review ; but it would be impossible for him, were it desirable, to give a complete enumeration of his authorities, as information has been derived from upwards of two hundred volumes.

Contents

ANCIENT HISTORY.

Uses of History 1

Sources of History ......•• 3

The Phoenicians 9

Section I. The country and the People ... 14

II. The History of Greece divided into Periods

III. Fabulous Age : Foundation of Cities and Institu

ticns : Argonautic expedition

IV. Heroic Age . Trojan War : Return of the Hera

V. Sparta or Lacedaemon : Institutions of Lycurgus VI. Athens: Cod. us: Draco: Solon and his Institu

tions : Pisistratus : Pisistratidae VII. Greece invaded by the Persians under Darius Battle of Marathon : Miltiades. — Persian Inva sion under Xerxes : Themistocles : Aristides Battle of Thermopylae : Leonidas : Battles of Sal amis, Plataea, and Mycale : Cimon VIII. Peloponnesian War : Pericles : Alcibiades : Battle of iEgos-Potamos : Lysander : Thirty Tyrants Socrates : Retreat of the Ten Thousand : Peace of Antalcidas : Thebes : Epaminondas : Battles of Leuctra and Mantinea : Agesilaus • • 29

IX. Philip of Macedon : Sacred War : Battle of Cha> ronea : Alexander the Great: Conquest of Persia : Battles of the Granicus, Issus, and Arbela : Alexander's Death ....... 34

X. Alexander's Successors: Demosthenes: Phocion : Demetrius Phalereus : Achaean League: Philopoemen : Subjugation of Macedonia and Greece 40

XL Grecian Antiquities 44

Syria under the Seledcid^: 51

18 19

CONTENTS.

Rome. — Page.

Section I. Roman History : Foundation of Rome : Romulus : Numa : Tullus Hostilius : Ancus Martius : Tarquinius Priscus : Servius Tullius : Tarquinius Superbus, — expelled, and the regal Government abolished ........ 56

II. The Commonwealth : — Consuls, Collatinus and Brutus : Valerius : Porsenna : Dictator : The Plebeians encamp on Mons Sacer : Tribunes : Coriolanus : Law of Volero : Cincinnatus : The Twelve Tables : Decemvirs : Appius Claudius . . 59

III. Military Tribunes : Censors : Veii destroyed : Camillus : Rome burnt by the Gauls : Brennus : Manlius : The Samnites : Pvrrhus : Conquest of Italy .... ." .... 64

IV. Carthage and Sicily . .' * . . . . 68 V. First Punic War ; Regulus : Second Punic War ; Hannibal : Conquest of Macedonia : Third Punic War; Carthage destroyed : Conquest of Greece 69

VI. The Gracchi : Jugurtha : Social War : Mithridates : Marius and Sylla : Servile War : Conspiracy of

Catiline 73

VII. First Triumvirate : Civil War of Csesar and Pompey : Second Triumvirate : Dissolution of the Commonwealth ... . . .76

VIII. Rome under the Emperors : — The Caesars : Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, Nero, Galba, Otho, Vitellius, Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian 85

IX. Nerva: Trajan: Adrian: Antoninus Pius : Marcus

Aurelius Antoninus 91

X. From Commodus to Constantine ... 93

XI. From Constantine to the extinction of the Western

Empire 96

XII. The Kingdom of the Heruli, of the Goths, and of the

Lombards. — The Eastern Empire to its extinction 99 XIII. Roman Antiquities ...... 101

THE MIDDLE AGES 109

The Feudal System . . • • 115

The Crusades *. • H?

MODERN HISTORY .

Section I. Merovingian Kings : — Charlemagne, &c.

II. Capetian Kings, — from Hugh Capet to Philip VI of Valois .......

III. Branch of Valois .—Philip VI:; John II. ; Charles

V,; Charles VI.; Charles VII.; Louis XI.- Charles VIII -

IV. Louis XII. ; Francis I. ; Henry II. ; Francis II.

Charles IX. ; Henry III

V. House of Bourbon : -*r Henry IV. ; Louis XIII. ; Louis XIV

129 131 134

137 140 145

CONTENTS.

xi

II III.

IV.

Section VI. Louis XV. ; Louis XVI. : — The Revolution

VII. The Revolution continued : — Robespierre ; Bona parte ; European War : Louis XVIII. : CharlesX England. —

Section I. The History of England : The Roman Conquest The Saxon Conquest : The Heptarchy From the Foundation of the Monarchy under Eg

bert to the Norman Conquest The JVorm.an Family : — William I the Conqueror

William II ; Henry I.; Stephen Family of Flantagenet : — Henry II.; Richard I. John ; Henry III. ; Edward I. ; Edward II. Edward III. ; Richard II.

V. Branch of Lancaster : — Henry IV. ; Henry V. Henry VI. ......

VI. Branch of York .—Edward IV,; Edward V. ; Rich

ard III. . .

House of Tudor .—Henry VII. j Henry VIII. ; Edward VI. ; Mary ; Elizabeth .

The Stuart Family: — James I.; Charles I. : The Commonwealth ; Cromwell : — Charles II. ; James II. ; William and Mary ; Anne House of Brunsicick : — George I.; George II. j

Page. 150

VII.

VIII.

IX.

167 169 173

175 185

188 190

George III. ; George IV. . .

Scotland . :■ .

?24

Netherlands

America. — Discovery and Settlement: — Columbus; Americus; Cabot, &c. : Conquest of Mexico and Peru : — Cortez, Pizarro, &c

Section I. Settlement and Early History of the Colonies : — Virginia ; New York ; Colonies of New England ; Indian Wars; Maryland; Pennsylvania . . 241 II. Oppressive Measures relating to the Colonies : French Wars; Capture of Louisburg ; Expedition against New England ; Conquest of Canada 253 III. Disputes between Great Britain and the Colonies : Commencement of Hostilities : Battles of Lexington and Bunker Hill : Declaration of Independence 260

XII

CONTENTS.

United States. — Page.

Section IV. Revolutionary War continued : — Battles of Brooklyn, White Plains, Trenton, Princeton, Bennington, Brandywine, Germantown, Stillwater ; Surrender at Saratoga ; Battles of Monmouth, Rhode Island, Camden, Cow-Pens, Guildford, Eutaw Springs ; Surrender at Yorktown : — Independence acknowledged ..... 270 V. Army disbanded : The Constitution formed : Washington's Administration : Adams's Administration 281 VI. Jefferson's Administration : Madison's Administration ; War with Great Britain : — Monroe ; Adams ; Jackson ........ 286

ECCLESIASTICAI

Section I II.

IV. History

From the Birth of Christ to the year 325 From A. D. 325 to 755 ...

From A. D. 755 to 1517 The Reformation, beginning in 1517

CHRONOLOGY

Chart of History — Description and Illustration Sacred History . . ...

TABLES.—

I. Kingdom of Israel and Judah II. Kingdom of Israel or the Ten Tribes

III. Grecian History ....

IV. Chronology of Grecian Literature V. Roman History, No. 1. . .

VI. Roman History, No 2

VII. ( hronology of Roman Literature .

VIII. History of France, No. 1.

IX. Histo y of France, No. 2. . . .

X. Chronology of Italian, French, Spanish,

Literature . . . . .

XI. History of England, No. 1. .

XII. History of England, No. 2.

XIII. Chronology of English Literature

XIV. Eras in Modern History . . , .

XV. Ecclesiastical Chronology

XVI. Chronology of Inventions

XVII. History of the United States

XVIII. Events of the Revolutionary War XIX. Chronology of Improvements, &c.

XX. Distinguished Americans

QUESTIONS adapted to the Use of the Elements of History 347

German, &c.

295 300 302 305

ELEMENTS OF HISTORY.

USES OF HISTORY.

1. History is a narrative of past events. The study of it is attractive both to the young and the old, to the unreflecting and the philosophical mind. It combines amusement of the deepest interest; the exercise and improvement of the best faculties of man ; and the acquisition of the most important species of knowledge.

2. History, considered merely as 9 source of amusement, has great advantages over novels and romances, the perusal of which too often debilitates the mind by inflaming the imagination, and corrupts the heart by infusing what may justly be regarded as moral poison. Like works of fiction, history serves to amuse the imagination and interest the passions, not always, indeed, in an equal degree ; yet it is free from the corrupting tendencies which too often belong to novels, and has a great superiority over them, inasmuch as it rests on the basis of fact.

3. The love of novelty and of excitement is natural to man ; hence the general taste for history, though its details are not unfrequently painful. It affords a melancholy view of human nature, governed by the baser passions ; and is, to a lamentable extent, little else than a register of human crime and calamity, of war and suffering.

4. A higher use of history is to improve the understanding and strengthen the judgment. It has been styled philosophy teaching by examples; or moral philosophy exemplified by the lives and actions of men. It adds to our own experience an immense treasure of the experience of others, and thereby enables us to enter upon the business of life witn the advantage of being, in a manner, acquainted with it.

2 USES OF HISTORY.

5. It makes us acquainted with human nature, and enables us to judge how men will act in given circumstances, and to trace the connection between cause and effect in human affairs. It serves to free the mind from many narrow and hurtful prejudices ; to teach us to admire what is praiseworthy, wherever it may be found ; and to compare, on enlarged and liberal principles, other ages and countries with our own.

6. History may be regarded as the school of politics, and, as such, some knowledge of it is indispensable to rulers and statesmen ; n is also highly important to every citizen of a republic, in order 10 enable him to perform, in a manner honorable to himself and useful to the community, the duties of a freeman. By history we gain our knowledge of the constitution of society ; of the reciprocal influence of national character, laws, and government; of those causes and circumstances which have promoted the rise and prosperity, or the decline and fall, of states and empires.

7. History shows us past ages, triumphs over time, and presents to our view the various revolutions which have taken place in the world. It furnishes us with the wisdom and experience of our ancestors, exhibits their living actions, and enables us to profit by their successes and failures. It teaches us what has been done for the melioration of mankind by the wisdom of Greece and Rome, by modern literature and science, by free government, and by true religion.

8. It tends to strengthen the sentiments ©f virtue. In its faithful delineations, vice always appears odious, and virtue not only desirable and productive of happiness, but also favorable to true honor and solid glory. The reader of history learns to connect true glory, not with the possession of wealth and power, but with the disinterested employment of great talents in promoting the good of mankind.

9. True history has numberless relations and uses as an exhibition of the conduct of Divine Providence ; and it presents numerous instances in which events, important to the welfare of the human race, have been brought about by inconsiderable means, contrary to the intentions of those who were the principal agents in them.

10. A knowledge of history has a tendency to render us contented with our condition in life, by the views which it exhibits of the instability of human affairs. It teaches us that the highest stations are not exempt from severe trials

SOURCES OF HISTORY.

that riches and power afford no assurance of happiness ; and that the greatest sovereigns have not unfrequentjy been more miserable than their meanest subjects.

SOURCES OF HISTORY.

Some of- the principal sources of history, independent of authentic records, or the narrative of those who were contemporary with the events which they relate, are the following : —

1. Oral tradition. From this source Herod'otus derived the greater part of his history. It existed before the invention of the arts of writing, carving, and painting.

% Historical poems. These are common among all barbarous nations. The Iliad and Od'yssey of Homer were regarded by the Greeks as of historical authority ; and they comprise the only history extant of what is called the heroic age of Greece.

3. Visible monuments, as pillars, heaps of stones, and mounds of earth, are used to perpetuate historical events among a barbarous people.

4. Ruins, as those of Egypt, and of the cities of Balbec, Palmy'ra, and Persep'olis, are lasting memorials of the power, opulence, and taste of the builders.

5. Giving names to countries, towns, fyc, has been used, in all ages, as a method of perpetuating the memory of their planters or founders.

6. Coins and medals are of great use in illustrating history, chronology, geography, and mythology, as well as the manners and customs of the nations of antiquity. These, however, belong to. a people of some refinement. Ancient coins have been found buried in the earth at various times, in considerable quantities. Vast numbers are now preserved belonging to different ages. The most ancient of those of which the antiquity can be ascertained, belong to the 5th century before the Christian era.

7. Inscriptions on marbles. The most celebrated collection of marbles, made use of for the illustration of ancient history, is that which is now in the possession of the University of Oxford, in England, and which was brought from Greece by the earl of Arundel, and from him called the Arundelian Marbles.

8. The most important of these inscriptions is the Chronicle of Paros, which contains the chronology of Athens from the time of Cecrops, B. C. 1582, to B. C. 264, at which latter period it is supposed to have been compiled. The authority of this Chronicle has been called in question by a number of learned men ; but it has been supported by many others, and the chronology of Greece, at present most generally received, has been, in a great measure, founded upon it.

DIVISIONS OF HISTORY.

1. History, with respect to time, is divided into Ancient and Modern.

% Ancient History is the history of the world from the creation to the establishment of the New Empire of the West under Charlemagne, A. D. 800. Modern History embraces all the time subsequent to that period.

3. Some historians, however, adopt the Christian era, and others the subversion of the Western Empire of the Romans, A. D. 476, for the dividing point between Ancient and Modern History.

4. A third division of history, which is often considered as distinct from ancient and modern, is that of the Middle Ages. This period comprises about a thousand years, from the 5th to the 15th century ; or from the subversion of the Western Empire of the Romans to that of the Eastern Empire.

5. The Middle Ages embrace the time intervening between the extinction of ancient literature, and the appearance of modern literature. During this period Europe was sunk in ignorance and barbarism ; hence it is often styled the Dark Ages.

6. Ancient History is distinguished by the four great monarchies of Assyria or Babylon, Persia, Greece or Macedonia^ and Rome.

7. The Middle Ages are characterized by the origin and progress of Mahometanism and the Saracen Empire, the prevalence of the Feudal System, the Crusades, and Chivalry.

8. Modern History is distinguished by the invention of gunpowder, and the consequent change in the mode of war;

the discovery of America, and the extension of commerce ; the invention of the art of printing, the revival of learning, and the diffusion of knowledge ; also by the reformation in religion, and a variety of other improvements in the state of society.

9. History, with regard to the nature of its subjects, is divided into Sacred and Profane, Ecclesiastical and Civil.

10. Sacred History is the history contained in the Scriptures, and it relates chiefly to the Israelites or Jews. Profane History is the history of ancient heathen nations, and is found chiefly in the writings of the Greeks and Romans. Ecclesiastical History is the history of the church of Christ, or of Christianity, from its first promulgation to the present time. Civil History is the history of the various nations, states, and empires, that have appeared in the world, exhibiting a view of their wars, revolutions, and changes.

11. Sacred History goes back to the remotest period of time, and commences with an account of the creation of the world, which, according to the Hebrew text of the Scriptures, took place 4004 years before the Christian era ; according to the Samaritan text, 4700 - according to the Septuagint, 5872 ; and according to the computation of Dr. Hales, 5411. The computation according to the Hebrew text, which gives 4004 from the creation to the Christian era, and 1656 from the creation to the deluge, is the one commonly received in English literature, though many suppose that of Dr. Hales to be more correct.

12. The earliest profane historian, whose works are extant, is Herod'otus, who is styled the Father of History. His history was composed about 445 years B. C, and comprises every thing which he had an opportunity of learning respecting the Egyptians, Persians, Greeks, lonians, Lydians, Lycians,, and Macedonians, from about the year 713 to 479 before the Christian era.

13. With regard, therefore, to all the preceding ages of the world, which, reckoning from the creation to the time when the narrative of Herod'otus begins, comprise, according to the common chronology, nearly 3300 years, there exist no documents, with the exception of the Scriptures, really deserving the name of history. The accounts which have been given of the events of this long series of ages, comprising more than half of the time which has elapsed since the origin of the human race, were drawn up by writers who lived long after the transactions of which they treat, and were compiled from scat* tered records fragments, and traditions.

1 *

14. Our knowledge, of course, of the early history of the world, the first settlement of the different portions of it, the primitive state of society, and the progress of mankind in the remotest ages, is extremely limited. The Scriptures are the only authentic source of information on these subjects. The facts which they record, though not sufficiently numerous to satisfy curiosity, are yet, in the highest degree, interesting and important.

15. Some of the most remarkable events, previous to the commencement of profane history, recorded in the Bible, are the creation of the world, the fall of man, the deluge, the dispersion of mankind at Babel, the planting of different nations, the call of Abraham, the deliverance of the Israelites out of Egypt, and their settlement in Canaan.

1(3. The histories of Greece and Rome are far the best known, most interesting, and most important portions of ancient profane history.

17. There is much obscurity hanging over the history of the Middle or Dark Ages.

18. The portions of history best known are those which relate to modern civilized nations, during the last three centuries.

[The £hart of History, which is found in this volume, together with the Description and Illustration, beginning with 313th page, may now be advantageously attended to.~\

[For some remarks on Sacred History, and Tables of the History of the kingdoms of Israel and Judah, see pages 319, 320, and 321.]

EGYPT.

EGYPT.

1. Egypt holds a conspicuous place in history, on account of its great antiquity and early attainments in the arts. It has been styled the cradle of the sciences, and it claims the honor of the invention of the art of writing. At a period when Greece and Italy were immersed in barbarism, Egypt could boast of arts, learning, and civilization. It was the principal source from which the Grecians derived their information ; and, after all its windings and enlargements, we may still trace the stream of our knowledge to the banks of the Nile.

2. It is a matter of regret that we have the means of obtaining but little knowledge respecting the ancient history of Egypt. The early dynasties of the kingdom are involved in obscurity, and history throws little light on the building of its most ancient cities, or the construction of those magnificent monuments, which show to how high a state of improvement the inhabitants, at a remote period, had carried the arts, and which still continue to be objects of admiration and astonishment.

3. The most celebrated of these works of ancient grandeur are Lake Mozris, an immense artificial reservoir ; the Labyrinth, an enormous structure of marble, built under ground ; the Catacombs, or Mummy-pits, subterraneous galleries, of prodigious extent, appropriated to the reception of the dead, and the Pyramids, a, wonder both of the ancient and the modern world.

4. The glory of Thebes, a city of Upper Egypt, famous for its hundred gates, the theme and admiration of ancient poets and historians, belongs to a period prior to the commencement of authentic history. It is recorded only in the dim lights of poetry and tradition, which might be suspected of fable, did not such mighty witnesses to their truth remain.

5. Before the time of Herod'otus, Memphis had supplanted Tliebes, and the Ptol'emies afterwards removed the seat of empire to Alexandria. Strabo and Diodo'rus described Thebes Hnder the name of Dios'polis, and gave such magnificent descriptions of its monuments, as caused their fidelity to be called in question, till the observations of modern travellers proved their accounts to have fallen short of the reality.

6. The place of alphabetic writing was supplied, in ancient Egypt, by those rude pictures of visible objects, known by the nan e of hieroglyphics, a multitude of which are still found sculptured on her walls and temples.

7. A striking resemblance, with regard to government, religion, customs, and character, has been remarked between the ancient Egyptians and several oriental nations, particularly the Chinese. The government was an hereditary monarchy, but the power of the sovereign was checked by the influence of the priests.

8. Every person, not excepting the king, was, immediately after his death, subjected to a trial, in order to determine whether he was worthy of funeral rites. His whole life passed in review, and, if pronounced virtuous, his embalmed body was, with various marks of honor, deposited in a sepulchre, which was often constructed at great expense ; but, if his life had been vicious, or if he had died in debt, he was left unburied, and was supposed to be deprived of future happiness.

9. Me'nes, supposed to be the same as Miz'raim, the son of Ham, is said to have founded the Egyptian monarchy, and to have been succeeded in the throne by his posterity, for many generations. Afterwards we are told that a race of sovereigns, styled the Shepherd Kings, governed Egypt for the space of two or three centuries.

10. The ancient Egyptians appear never to have been a warlike nation. Sesos'tris is the only king of the country whose name stands recorded in history as a great conqueror. He is said to have maintained a numerous army, and to have conquered a great part of Asia ; but we have little certain knowledge of his achievements, or of the extent of his conquests. During his latter years, he is said to have renounced a life of warfare, and to have devoted himself to the internal improvement of his kingdom. The time of his reign is not well ascertained- He has been supposed to be the same as Shishak, who took Jerusalem in the reign of Rehoboam ; but Sir Isaac Newton supposes him to have been the same as Osi'ris, and Mr. Whiston, the Pha'raoh who was drowned in the Red sea.

11. The next sovereign who is particularly distinguished in history, was Nechus, or Pha'raoh-Necho. He patronized navigation, and fitted out a fleet which sailed round Africa. He made war upon the Medes and Babylonians, and defeated Josiah king of Judah, in the battle of Megiddo,

THE PHOENICIANS. <J

12. In the year B. C. 525, at the commencement of the reign of Psammeni'tus, the Persians, under Camby'ses, invaded Egypt, and laid siege to Pelu'sium. Taking advantage of the Egyptian superstition, the invaders placed in front of their army a variety of dogs, cats, and other animals, which were held sacred by the besieged ; and the Egyptians not daring to injure the sacred animals, the Persians entered Pelu'sium without resistance. Soon after Camby'ses took Memphis, and reduced Egypt to a province of the Persian monarchy.

13. It was easily wrested from the sway of Persia by Alexander the Great ; after his death it fell to the share of Ptol'emy; and under him, and his successors of the same name, Egypt regained her ancient lustre, and rose to a height in science and commerce, which no other part of the world then equalled*

THE PHCENICIANS.

1. The Phoenicians were among the most remarkable and most early civilized nations of antiquity ; yet there is no complete or regular history of them extant ; occasional notices of them, however, are found in the Scriptures and in the Greek historians. Sanconi'athon, a Phoenician historian, is supposed by some to have flourished about the time of Joshua ; but of his work only a few fragments remain ; and the genuineness of even these is considered as very doubtful.

2. The inhabitants of Phoenicia, who are styled Ca'naanites in the Scriptures, were a commercial people in the time of Abraham. Tyre and Sidon, their principal cities, were two of the most ancient we read of in history ; and in remote ages, they were the most considerable seats of commerce in the world.