The complete guide to blacksmithing, horseshoeing

Front matter

Y> V oV

THE COMPLETE GUIDE TO

Blacksmithing

Part I. GENERAL BLACKSMITHING

PAGE.

Chapter I. The Forge— Forga and Blast, Spring Bellows, Care of Bellows, The Anvil, The Hammer, Other Tools H

Chapter II. Operations in Forging — The Fire, Flux, Degrees of Heat, Drawing Down, Set-ojEf, Jumping or Up-setting, Shutting Together, Hardening Steel, Case- Hardening 26

Part II. HORSESHOEING

Chapter I. The Anatomy of the Horse's Foot — The Hoof in General, The Wall, The Sole, The VvTiite Line, The Frog, The Skin, The Coronary Band, The Sensitive Structures 47

Chapter II. Growth and Condition of the Hoof — Growth of the Hoof, Wearing of the Hoof Affected by Position 01 Lcj^s, How to Judge a Hoof 57

Chapter HI. Shoeing Healthy Hoofs— The Preliminary Examination, Raising and Holding the Foot, Taking off the Old Shoes, Preparing the Hoof for Shoes, Preparing the Hoof for Going Barefoot, 3

4 Contents.

PASE

Making Shoes, Character of the Shoe, Heel Calks, Toe and Heel Calks, Peculiarities of Shoes for DiiTerent Kinds of Feet, The Choice of the Shoe, Fitting Shoes, Shoeing Heavy Draught Horses, Concluding Directions, Nailing the Shoe 73

Chapter IV, Forging and Interfering 105

Chapter V. Winter Shoeing. Care of the Hoof — Ice-nails, Sharp Calks, Screw Calks, To Prevent Balling with Snow, Care of Unshod Hoofs, Washing, Time to Shoe, Hoofs of Older Horses, Care of Shod Hoofs 110

Chapter VI. Shoeing^ Defective Hoofs — Lameness, Inflammation of the Pododerm, Treatment, The Bar-Shoe, "Nailing," Treatment for "Nailing," Street Nail, Calking, Corns, Treatment of Corns, Inflammation of the Bulbs of the Heels, Founder, Horn Tumor 118

Chapter VII. Various Defects — Flat Hoof and Dropping Sole, Stumpy Hoof, Contracted Hoof, Treatment, Wry Hoofs, Crooked Hoofs, Side-Bone, Cracks, Treatment of Cracks, Loose Wall, Hollow Wall, Thrush of the Frog 135

Chapter VIII. Shoeing Mules and Oxen 150

Part III. CARRIAGE BUILDING

Chapter I. Carriage Ironing — Edge Plates, The Wheel Plate, Bed Plates, Top Plate, The Transom Plate, The Bottom Plate, Wheel Irons and Front Bars, Head Irons, Hind Irons, Cross Spring, Branch Steps, Steps with T-flap, The Wings, The Seat Rails, Dash Iron, Boot Steps, Pole Socket, Springs, Tires. . 153

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

NO. CUT. PAGE

1. A Brick Forge 12

2. An Iron Forge with Fan Blower 13

3. Bellows with Spring Attachment 15

4. Anvil 17

5. Blacksmith's Hammers 21

6. The Proper Kind of Hammer Eye 22

7. A Pair of Tongs 23

8. Split Joint 41

9. Butt Joint 41

10. T Joint 42

11. Section of the Foot 47

12. External Appearance of Foot 48

13. Bottom of Foot 51

14. Normal Position of Front Feet 61

15. Base-wide Position 62

16. Out-toe Position 63

17. Base-narrow, In-toe Position 63

18. Correct Position as Viewed from Side 64

19. Position Too Far Forward 65

20. Sheep-kneed Position 65

21. Acute-angled Foot 66

22. Bear-Foot 68

23. Lines of Flight, Regular, Base- wide, and Base-

narrow 69

24. Untrimmed and Trimmed Hoofs 82

25. Both Sides of a Front Shoe, Showing Concaving

and Position of Nails 85

26. Front Shoe. Hind Shoe 87

27. Heel Calks 91

28. A Horseshoe Nail 101

6 List of Illustrations.

CUT NO. PAGB

29. Interfering Shoe— Front 107

30 Dropped-Crease Interfering Hind Shoe 108

31. Hind Shoe for Toe-Cutters 109

32. An Ice-Nail 110

33. Inner Heel Calk Ill

34. Outer Heel Calk 112

35. Bar Shoe 121

36. Wide-Web Shoe for Foundered Hoof 134

37. Tip for Stumpy Hoof 137

38. Treatment of Cracks 144

39. Shoe for One Claw of an Ox 151

40. Key to Names of Carriage Irons 154

41. Bored Hubs 189

42. '-' Stagger" Mortised Hubs 190

43. Work Bench 193

44. Dished Spoke 197

45. Repairing Dished Wheel 197

46. Wheel for a Wheelbarrow 201

47. Modern Farm ¥/agon 203

48. Front Bolster 204

49. Back Bolster 205

50. Good Form of Hounds 206

PUBLISflERS' PREFACE.

Without doubt the most thoroughly reliable handbook of horseshoeing is the German text-book of Professor Lungwitz, director x)f the Shoeing School of the Royal Veterinary College at Dresden. The conditions in Germany are almost identical with those in this country, and the Shoeing School superintended by Professor Lungwitz may safely be regarded as the best in the world. Certainly there is none like it in the United States.

But Professor Lungwitz 's discussion of the anatomy of the horse's foot is too technical for the ordinary reader, and his book gives no suggestions on the elementary principles of blacksmithing, which are prerequisites of any attempt at shoeing a horse. To make the present handbook complete, these directions have been added, and the text of Professor Lungwitz 's book has been somewhat condensed and simplified. Moreover, a chapter on carriage-ironing, with other general information, has been added.

8 Publishers^ Preface.

that the manual may be thoroughly practical and as complete as possible.

It is certainly true that every owner and driver of horses, as well as every person who professes to be a horseshoer, should have a thorough knowledge of the horse's foot and the requirements in the way of shoeing. But how many do! Even farriers know no more of the horse's hoof, and the scientific requirements for obtaining the best results in any given case, than they have been able to pick up in the exercise of their trade. This kind of knowledge is notoriously imperfect. It will never improve. And owners and drivers are for the most part so ignorant that they could not tell a front foot from a hind foot, or tell the difference between a job of shoeing that would make a horse lame in a week, and one that would cure the same lameness in even less time. And this ignorance costs the owner many a hardearned dollar. No better investment can be made than a little time spent in the study of the horse's feet, by the help of a really scientific manual. But it is better not to study any book at all than one that is unreliable.

It is believed that the present volume will meet the popular need better than any other that has yet been issued. The authoritativeness

Pvhlishers' Preface. 9

of anything from the pens of Professor Lungwitz and Mr. Adams is uiiimpeachable, while the publishers have given the volume a practical character which must inevitably appeal to the common sense of the average reader.

Chapter I. The Forge

The Forge and Blast. This is the term usually applied to the blacksmith's open fire or hearth, where iron is heated by agency of a blast. Fig. 1 shows an elevation of a form of hearth very common in this country. When of the largest size, this hearth is a kind of trough of brickwork, about six feet square, elevated several inches from the floor of the shop. One side is extended into a vertical wall leading to the chimney, the lower end of which terminates in a head, or hood of stout iron plates, which catch the smoke from the open hearth and guide it to the chimney. The back wall of the forge is provided with a thick cast iron plate, level with the hearth. This is called the ''back," and has in its centre a thick projecting

Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing.

iron nozzle, perforated to allov/ the wind for the blast to pass into the forge. This is termed the 'Hue" or '' tuyere," French for a tube or pipe. The large leathern bellows which supply the blast are either actuated by a long handle, or worked by a treadle as shown in the figure.

The bellows should be double, that is, divided by a horizontal partition, which separates the entire bellows into a working or under part, and a regulating or upper part. By low^ering the under- part after it has been raised, the valve in its bottom will be forced open by the pressure of the atmosphere, and the lower compartment will fill with air. On raising the bottom, the lower valve closes, and the air

Carriage and Wagon Building.

in the under part is compressed and forced through the valve in the partition, whence the weight of the top drives it through the tuyere or nozzle. The pressure may be increased by putting weights upon the top. The bellovv's may be driven b)^ machinery or power, where such can be procured, quite as well as by hand. Many prefer the circular bellows, or the fan; and in large smithies air is supplied to a vast number of forges through pipes fed by air-pumps.

Vi.^

Fig. 2 shows a steel portable forge, composed entirely of iron and steel, with a fan worked by a crank, the air-pipe passing downward and through a 'tuyere" into the coal-box.

In front of the hearth are usually two plate-iron troughs, one to contain coal, the other (the slake trough) being filled with water.

The tuyere or tue iron is generally a simple block of cast iron six or eight inches long and three inches square, with a tapered bore of one inch at the sm.aller and three inches at the larger end. The narrow part, which is directed to the fire, can be made narrower by placing an iron ring of more or less thickness within the aperture. Tuyeres have been contrived of various forms, but probably none will be found superior to that just described. Hot-air tuyeres have been used, but are now generally abandoned. The water tuyere is, on account of its durability, very valuable. Here the cast iron forge back is made hollow so that a stream of water may circulate through it from a small cistern. The water back is, therefore, kept from becoming intensely hot, and it and the tuyere last much longer.

The Spring Belloios. A noted smith says, ''Of all the bellows that I have seen or used, one with the spring attached . beats them all

Carriage and Wagon Building.

for a steady blast. You would be surprised to see the difference there is in the blast of these bellows when the spring is used and when it is not. A, in Fig. 3, is the spring which is bolted on to the piece B, with three carriage bolts; then the ends CC are fastened to the two posts XX. This shows spring applied ready for use. At there is a square plate fastened to the bellows with four screws; this plate keeps the spring from wearing in the top board of the bellows. The spring A is made from a piece of 1 by -} inch spring steel, the crossbar B was made from an old tire^but could be made of wood. In fastening the spring to the posts XX, leave about J-ineh space between it and the bellows when the bellows is down."

Care of Bellows. How many bellows have been and are spoiled from negligence in cold weather? They should be oiled tw^o or three times a year to soften the leather, and when not in use (over night) they should be hung up by a chain as per line D (Fig. 3) so as to keep the leather distended. But how many smiths or helpers hang them up at night or when not in use during the day? How many oil the bellows at all? On a cold winter's morning, start your fire and give the pole a jerk, and crack, crack goes the leather. Of course then you will hear some strong language about the good-for-nothing leather, and what a poor bellows you have. A schoolboy knows that when leather is dry it will break like chips. So, clean and oil your bellows before the cold weather comes on.

The Anvil. The tool next in importance to the forge is the anvil (Fig. 4). This is not only of interest as a tool of the trade, but it requires some investigation, since the steeling

Carriage and Wagon Building.

of the anvil is a matter of importance. Anvils for heavy work are generally square blocks of iron, with steel faces. In many instances, however, it is merely a cast iron block with chilled face. The common smith's anvil is made entirely of wrought iron, and the upper part or face is covered with hardened steel. The making of an anvil is heavy work, as the whole of it is performed by hand. Anvils vary in weight from less than one hundred pounds to over five hundred. For their manufacture two large fires are required. The principal portion, or core of the anvil — a large square block of iron — is heated to the welding heat at a certain point or corner in one of the fires, and the piece of iron that is to form a projcting end is heated at another fire. When the core and the corner have both reached the welding heat, they are wrought together upon an anvil and joined by heavy swing hammers. In this way the four corners of the base are welded to the body in four heats. After this the projection for the shank hole, and lastly the beak, are welded to the core. The whole is then wrought into a proper shape by paring and trimming for the reception of the face. The steel used for this purpose is, or ought to be, the best kind of sheer steel ; blistered steel is, however, frequently substituted. The anvil and steel are heated in different fires until they attain the proper temperature. The tv/o sides which are to be welded are then sprinkled with calcined borax and joined by quickly repeated blows of the hand hammer. The steel generally used is half an inch thick; but if it is only a quarter of an inch in thickness the difference is unimportant if the steel be good. Steel of an inferior quality if too thick is apt to fly or crack in hardening.

The steeled anvil is next heated to redness, and brought under a fall of water of at least the size of its face and of three or four feet head. After hardening, it is smoothed upon a grindstone, and finally polished Vv^ith emery. Small anvils such as are used by silversmiths are polished v/ith a crocus and have a mirror-like face.

The expensiveness of wrought iron anvils has induced their manufacture of cast iron. The common anvil, however, cannot be made cf cast iron, for the beak would not be strong enough. None but anvils with full square f'lces have been successfully made of cast iron. These have either been simply chilled by castmg the faces in iron molds, or the face is plated with cast steel. Chilled cast iron anvils are not much in use. They are too brittle and the corners of the face will not stand. Cast iron anvils with cast-steel faces, however, are a superior article and in m.any respects preferable to wrought iron. The face is harder and stronger, though the beaks will not last as long. For purposes where a good face is essen-tial, as for copper and tin smiths, the cast iron anvil with cast steel face will be found to answer every purpose.

The anvil is generally set upon the butt-end of a large block of wood, oak being preferred. It is placed loosely upon it, being secured merely by a few spikes or wedges driven into the wood. Cutlers, filemakers, and those who manufacture small articles cf steel, place their anvils upon blocks of stone, in order to make their founaation firm, preventing recoil, and giving efficiency to fight but quick blows with the hammer.

In working soft metals, such as copper and its compounds, a layer of felt between the anvil and the block will be found of advantage. The anvils upon which steel articles are to be forged are generally fashioned at the bottom in the form of cubes, for insertion by means of wedges either in stone or wooden stocks. A blacksmith's anvil, on the contrary, is formed with projecting corner bases, which are bolted down to the stock.

The Hammer. Second only to the anvil among smiths' tools comes the hammer. Primitive man must have needed and used rude stone hammers, such as are often unearthed at the present day. These ancient stone hammers had usually a groove round them for the handle, which was probably of supple withes.

The more usual form of the ordinary smiths' hammer generally weighs from one to two pounds. Sometimes the handle is nearer to the ''pane" or narrow end, the broad end being known as the ''face." The ordinary smiths' sledge weighs from five to eight pounds. A heavy sledge weighs from twelve to fifteen pounds, and a swing sledge from twenty-five to thirty pounds. Cutlers and edge-tool makers generally prefer a hammer with the handle near the pane side. The uphand sledge is used for

Carriage andJVagon Building.

comparatively light work. The swing or '^about" sledge is grasped by both hands at the extremity of the handle, and swung at arm's length over the head, giving the heaviest possible blow of which a hand-hammer is capable. There are two forms of the ordinary clipping hammer (Fig. 5), either with the pane parallel with the handle as shown in the upper figure, or with a ball pane or a pane elongated at right angles with the handle. The pane is mostly used for " riveting, and it is quite a question which is the best form. The hammer is one of these tools that the workman gets used to, and '^gets the hang of," and there is a good deal in this term as appUed to a ham.mer, as will be seen presently.

It takes about a year to get thoroughly at home with either after having become accustomed to the other or either of them.

We now come to the proper shape for the eye, to enable it to hold the hammer firmly and not in time get loose. The best form is that shown in Fig. 6, the handle end or bottom of the eye being rounded out as at B, and the top being rounded across the hammer, but not lengthwise. The rounding out prevents the handle from getting too far through the eye, and when the eye is wedged at the top with a single wedge, the spread across the eye prevents the handle from coming loose. This locks the handle firmly, while requiring one wedge only. A wooden wedge is preferable to an iron one, providing the handle and the wedge are of dry, well seasoned wood.

The Tongs. These constitute a very indispensable class of tools in the smithy. One of the most useful kinds of modern tongs is known as the ''flat-bit'' tongs (Fig. 7 A). They vary in size from one to five feet in length, and from half a pound to ten pounds in weight. The fire end is made to fit very close for thin work, or to stand more open for thick work, but always parallel. An oval coupler or iron ring is usually put upon the ''reins" or shanks of the tongs to keep their hold upon the work (as seen in Fig. 7).

Next in general utility are the pincer tongs (Fig. 7B). These are sometimes made with hollow, half round bits; but it is better that the bits be angular, as they are then equally useful for round rods or for square bars held at opposite angles. When the bits of these tongs are made long and bowed behind they are extremely useful for holding bolts, etc., the heads of which can be placed in the hollow portion.

These two varieties of tongs will serve most purposes.

Other Tools. Among the numerous other tools that prove useful to the blacksmith are punches and chisels (which may be held by twisted hazel rods or tongs); 'Hop and bottom tools, ''used in pairs, one being set in the anvil (the top and bottom ''fullers'' are used for grooving in the hot iron around a horseshoe) ; the set "hammer, "a small tool held against the hot iron while its top is struck with the hammer, thus rendering the blow more certain than if made direct by the hammer; and "heading" tools, employed in forging for swaging heads on stems of bolts. Swages are of great utility. They consist of tools having certain definite shapes, so that the hot iron, being placed in or below them, takes their shape when struck. Sometimes they are used in pairs and sometimes singly.

All smiths' tools are faced with steel, and would in fact be cheaper in the end if they were wholly made of that metal. Tongs made of spring steel are by far the best in the end, although costing more in the first instance. Tools should never be heated red hot, and when they have to be brought into contact with heated iron they should be frequently cooled. Tools are held by hazel rods soaked in water and twisted to prevent hurting the hand by the blow of the hammer.

Chapter II. Operations In Forging

The Fire. The coal employed in the smith's forge is usually bituminous, anthracite not being adapted to the purpose. No coals with metallic mixtures are suitable, because these are generally marked by the presence of sulphur also, which is very detrimental. Charcoal may be substituted for coal.

The smith's fire may be made either open or hollow, the latter being generally preferred.

When about to light his fire, the smith scrapes back the cinders and removes the used ashes or slack to the ashpit. Some wood shavings are then placed upon the nozzle of the tuyere and lighted. When these are burning low the cinders are raked back over them and the bellows are set to work. In a short time a white smoke rises, shortly aftervv^ard followed by tongues of flame breaking forth. A thin poker is now cautiously introduced as far as the tuyere. Next the work is placed in the fire, and fresh coal is laid on and over the fire and patted down with the fire shovel. As the process goes on, fresh coal is- continually added to the margin of the fire and pushed forward into the heart of it as is required.

In large hollow. fires, after a tolerable fire has been obtained by lighting in the usual manner, the live coal is drawn forward on the hearth so as to expose the aperture of the tuyere. A suitable sized piece of iron (or the poker) is put into this aperture. Small coal vvell wetted is now placed round this iron and v/eil beaten together into a mass termed the ^^ stock," the length of v/hich from the tuyere nozzle is regulated by the distance which it is desired the fire should stand off from the tuyere. Then more small coal is heaped up for a second stock opposite the first, but farther out on the hearth. These stocks should both be well beaten down which is sometimes aided by the sledge hammer. The iron which was inserted in the tuyere is drawn out before the second hill of stock is built up, leaving a hole for the tuyere pipe. The two heaps of stock appear with a gap between them where the fire lies. Into this gap or hollow space the weld is laid.covered over with two or three pieces of wood and a heap of wetted coal carefully banked over it and beaten down by the shovel. A gentle blast is kept up while these operations are going on, and the work is not taken out till the pieces of wood are consumed and the flames penetrate the coals at each end, when the work can be taken out without fear of disfiguring the fire. The instrument generally employed to wet the coal is a bundle of straw passed lightly through an iron ring formed at the end of a rod and kept in the slake trough. Damp, slack coal is thrown on the fire in a layer two or three inches thick. It will cake together, and after the loose coal is burned out, form a hollow fire, the coke roof reflecting an intense heat on the material beneath it. By no other means can a fire be made to possess so intense a heat as by the method we have described.

Flux. Sand or other material sprinkled upon iron when near the welding heat serves to form a flux or fluid glass with the iron. This flux surrounds the hot iron or steel and protects it against the impurities of the fuel, removing at the same time the coating of dry scales from the heated metals and greatly facilitating the operation of welding.

For welding steel to steel and steel to iron, we have a variety of degrees of heat to deal with and the flux which serves to protect iron is insufficient to protect cast steel, just as, on the other hand, the flux which fits cast steel for welding would be useless on iron. Impure wrought iron will form a slag of its own material, while good iron is protected, as we have intimated above, by sprinkling fine sand over it . But this method will not answer with steel, or where steel and iron are to be welded. For welding iron, clean river sand, or powdered sandstone, make a good flux; for steel, borax is generally used. With common brine, clay makes a very fine flux and clean surface to which steel readily adheres. The material to be used as a flux is to be applied shortly before the metal reaches the welding heat, no matter how high or low that heat may be. It will melt on the surface of the iron. Borax in crystals as commonly sold is composed of nearly one half water. On heating these crystals in an iron pot they dissolve into a clear liquid. On heating further, the v^ater is evaporated and the residuum resumes the appearance of a spongy mass, and by the continued application of heat this mass is converted into a clear glass. This glass is what is called calcined borax. It is entirely free from water and not very likely to absorb it. It should be prepared and powdered in advance, and be always on hand for use. Borax thus prepared is sufficient in nearly all cases. Still, some workers in steel prefer a mixture of two parts borax with one of sal-ammoniac, or three parts of the former with one of the latter article. This compound is preferable for welding iron and steel. Borax alone is rather too liquid for iron. Where it is to be welded to steel, a more efficient flux is well-dried and finely-powdered potters' clay — not common loam — which has been moistened with salt water; and it lasts long enough to be brought to the anvil for welding.

The slag flows off or is forced out in bringing the two surfaces together and pressing them into close contact. If iron or steel is heated in contact with air, it burns and forms a film of infusible magnetic oxide, the metals cannot come fairly into contact, and of course the welding is imperfect. It cannot be sound. After the flux is strewn on the iron, it is necessary to turn the metal constantly in the fire, otherwise the flux will flow to the lower parts and finally be lost. A better method than that of sprinkling the sand on the hot iron is to roll the metal in the powdered flux, thus saving the latter and keeping the fire more free from clinkers.

We do not advise mixing the sal-ammoniac with borax, as the ammonia has a tendency to convert the steel into iron. If pure borax is too refractory, as is the case with some of the best kinds of steel, an excellent flux may be produced by melting potash, or pearlash, together with pure dried clay, three parts of the former and one of the latter, in an iron pot; adding to the fluid mass gradually an equal weight of calcined borax. This flux should be finely powdered and used like the borax. It melts at a dark brown heat, vitrifying the iron slag perfectly, and is not injurious to steel. This metal rapidly deteriorates in quality if the atmosphere has access to it while hot. A suitable flux, therefore, which protects it, and at the same time purifies the surface, is all important.

Degrees of Heat. In all kinds of forging the iron or steel must be lieated in the forge to a greater or less degree of heat in order to lessen the cohesion of its particles and render it more malleable and pliable as well as more ready to enter into cohesion with the particles of another similarly heated piece when exposed to the blows of the hammer.

''Pure iron," says Holtzappel, 'Svill bear an almost unlimited degree of heat, the hot-short iron will bear much less, and is in fact very brittle when heated; and of steel, the shear steel will generally bear the highest temperature, the blistered steel the next, and cast steel the least of all; but all these kinds, and especially the cast steel, differ very much according to the process of manufacture."

That iron is the best, all things being equal, which will bear the highest degree of heat. The usual degrees of temperature recognized are five, viz.: ►

The black heat, just visible by daylight;

The low red or cherry red heat, appearing crimson in daylight ;

The bright red or bright cherry red heat, in which the black scales can be seen and look black;

The white heat, when the scales are hardly visible, or the scales and iron are nearly the same color;

The welding heat, when the iron begins to burn with vivid sparks.

The latter heat is very variable, pure fibrous iron sustaining almost any degree of heat so long as it is protected by a slag.