History of the United States, from their first settlement as colonies, to the period of the sixth census, in 1840.

Front matter

Class Book

SMITHSONIAN DEPOSIT

GRIGG & ELLIOT'S

Chapter I

Re/lections. Improvements in Astronomy, Navigation, and Geography, Voyages of Columbus.

Although the period of man's residence in this sublunary world, is much curtailed, his amount of happiness is increased. Providence has more than compensated for the diminution of his years, by the extension of his knowledge. His mental faculties are no longer engrossed by the mere operations of his body. His mind now ranges with delight over the cultivated field of science. His acquaintance with distant regions is enlarged ; he goes abroad to indulge his curiosity, or makes an ideal excursion to amuse his imagination.

The exploring of the deeply hidden nature of the elements, has not been more tardy than our advances in geography. It is true, that the Chaldeans and the Egyptians, at a time even beyond the most ancient records of authentic history, had marked the revolutions of the heavenly bodies, with a degree of industry and success, not less worthy of admiration, than difficult of comprehension, when we contemplate their scanty apparatus ; and, that during the refined ages, many centuries before the Christian era, the latter, or perhaps the Greeks, had discovered the form, and the dimensions, of this globe, with a geometrical exactness approaching nearly to the truth ; yet, their ideas concerning distant countries were extremely defective and perplexed. On this subject, their theories were, in general absurd, and tended to restrain inquiry ; thus, strengthening the maxim, that conscious ignorance is less injurious than dogmatical error.

About six centuries before Christ, Pythagoras of Samos became acquainted with the learning of Egypt, and diffused his observations throughout Greece and Italy. He taught, that the sun was the centre of the universe, that the earth was round, that people had antipodes, and that the moon reflected the rays of the sun ; a system deemed chimerical, until the philosophy and deep inquiries of the sixteenth century proved it to be incontestible and true. Philolaus, who flourished about a century after Pythagoras, proceeded a step further in astronomy. Embracing the same doctrine, he asserted the annual motion of the earth around the sun ; and, only a short time had elapsed, when its diurnal revolution on its own axis was promulgated by Hicetas, a Syracusan. Nearly at the same time, Meton and Euctemon made improvements in the science at Athens ; and, subsequently, in various parts, Eudoxus and Calippus, Aristarchus, Eratosthenes, Archimedes, and Hipparchus ; the last of whom, about one hundred and forty years before our era, ascertained the latitudes and longitudes of more than one thousand of the fixed stars, and enriched astronomy with many other valuable discoveries. In our first century, Ptolemy, an Egyptian, formed a theory, w r hich, although erroneous, was followed by all nations for many ages. He composed, in the Greek language, a great work, called the Almagest, containing his own and the observations of his most illustrious predecessors. This record, saved from the destruction of the Alexandrine library, wmen burned by the Saracens in the seventh century, was translated into Arabic in the ninth, and (by the emperor Frederic,) into Latin, in the thirteenth ; and thus were the acquirements in astronomy happily preserved, and extensively diffused.

From the latter period, until the discovery of America, the science was cherished by many distinguished philosophers, — Alphonso, king of Castile, Roger Bacon, an Eng- Ish monk, Purbach, and Muller. The last mentioned, a native of Koeningsberg, who died in 1476, invented several instruments useful in navigation ; amongst which, was an armillary astrolabe, resembling one formerly used by Hipparchus and Ptolemy, at Alexandria; with which, and a good timepiece, he made many observations.

Enabled by this preliminary sketch, to appreciate more fully the efforts of the ^different navigators in extending the

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sphere of commercial enterprise, we shall review, with additional pleasure, their adventures, from the earliest accounts, to the accomplishment of that great undertaking, which gave, to what is denominated the old world, a knowledge of the new.

To the desire of riches, may chiefly be assigned ou enlarged acquaintance with the globe which we inhabit The ancients were not less eager than the moderns in th pursuit of wealth ; but their progress was unaided by the faithful and constant guide, which now directs the mariner, during the darkness of the night, or the gloomy horrors of the tempest. Though acquainted with the property of the magnet, by which it attracts iron, its more important and amazing quality, of pointing to the poles, had entirely escaped their notice. Their navigation was therefore timid and uncertain. They seldom dared to sail beyond the sight of land ; but crept along the coast, exposed to every danger, and retarded by innumerable obstructions.

The Sidonians and Tyrians were more enterprising than any other people of antiquity. Astronomy, on its decline in Chaldea and Egypt, having passed into Phenicia, those people applied it to navigation ; steering by the north polar star : and, hence, became masters of the sea, and almost of the whole commerce of the world. Their ships frequented not only all the ports in the Mediterranean, but were the first that ventured beyond the strait of Gades, now called Gibraltar; or that visited the western coasts of Africa and Spain. At the same time, having obtained several commodious harbours towards the bottom of the Arabian Gulf Ihey established, after the manner of the Egyptians, a regu. lar intercourse with Arabia and the continent of India, on the one hand, and with the coast of Africa, on the other , from which countries, they imported many valuable com modities, and, for a long while, engrossed that lucrative trade, without a rival. They landed their cargoes at Elath, the safest harbour in the Red. Sea, towards the north. Thence, they carried them, by land, to Rhinocolura on the Mediterranean, re-shipped them, and transported them to Tyre ; and the vast wealth which the Phenicians had ac quired by this monopoly, incited the Jews, under David and Solomon, to pursue a similar trade. Carthage, a colony of Tyre, applied to naval affairs, with unremitting ardour, ingenuity, and success. It early rivalled and sur passed the parent state in opulence and power. Without contending with the mother country, for the trade of the east, the Carthaginians directed their attention towards the west and north ; and, following the course already opened, passed the strait of Gades, visited not only all the coasts of Spain and Gaul, but reached the more distant shores of Britain. Stimulated by the extent of these discoveries, they carried their researches to the south. Stretching along the western coast of Africa, they sailed almost to the tropic of Cancer; planted several colonies, in order to civilize the natives and accustom them to commerce, and discovered the Fortunate Islands, now known by the name of the Canaries ; the utmost boundary of ancient navigation in the western ocean.

Curiosity, as well as commercial avidity, induced them to continue their researches. To those motives, were owing the famous voyages of Hanno and Himilco. Their fleets were equipped by authority of the senate, and at the public expense. Proceeding towards the south, Hanno advanced much nearer to the equinoctial line, than any former navigator ; and Himilco explored the western coasts of Europe. Of the same nature, was the extraordinary voyage of the Phenicians around Africa. A Phenician fleet, prepared by Necho, king of Egypt, sailed, we are told, about six hundred years before the Christian era, from a port in the Red Sea, passed the southern promontory of Africa, (now called the Cape of Good Hope,) and, after a voyage of three years, arrived by the strait of Gades, at the Nile. Unfortunately, the particulars of those navigations were not communicated to the rest of mankind. All authentic memorials respecting the great naval skill of the Phenicians and Carthaginians, seem, in a great measure, to have perished, when the maritime power of the former was annihilated by Alexander, and the empire of the latter was overturned by the Roman arms.

The states of Greece pursued scarcely any commerce beyond the confines of the Mediterranean. Their ignorance of geography is almost incredible to us. But their knowledge was much enlarged by Alexander's expedition to the 3ast. Nor were the Romans less remarkable for their inattention to that science. In the history of the Roman empire, hardly one event occurs, evincing a regard to geographical inquiry or navigation, further than it was connected \yith the desire of conquest. Indeed, there prevailed, amongst the ancients, an opinion, which conveys a striking idea of the small progress made by them in the knowledge of the habitable globe. They supposed, that the earth was divided into five regions ; which they distinguished by the name of zones. Two of these, one at the north, the other at the south pole, they termed frigid , believing, that the extreme cold which reigned perpetually in both, was destructive to animal life. Another, which was seated under the line, and extended on *each side towards the tropics, they called the torrid zone ; imagining it to be so burned up with unremitting heat, as to be equally destitute of inhabitants. To the other two regions, they gave the appellation of temperate ; and taught that these, being the only situations in which life could possibly subsist, were assigned to man for his habitation. Wild, as seems this opinion at the present day, it was adopted, as a system, by the most enlightened philosophers, and the most accurate historians, of Greece and Rome. Promulgated by so respectable authority, that extravagant theory served to render their ignorance perpetual ; as it represented all attempts to open a communication with distant regions of the earth, impracticable and hopeless. Even the small degree of accurate geographical knowledge, which they had occasionally obtained, was almost entirely lost, on the fail of the Roman empire. The various nations of the north, who, in the fifth century, settled in the different provinces, were unacquainted with regular government or laws ; strangers to letters, destitute of arts, ignorant of their use, unambitious of their acquirement. No intercourse existed even amongst themselves. Constantinople, however, was so fortunate as to escape their destructive rage. There, the ancient arts and discoveries were preserved, and commerce continued to flourish, when almost extinct in every other part of Europe.

At length, the rude tribes in Italy having acquired some idea of regular government, and some relish for the modes of civil life, Europe gradually recovered from its degradation. The Italian merchants, notwithstanding the violent antipathy, which, as Christians, they possessed against the followers of Mahomet, repaired to Alexandria, and established with that port a lucrative trade. The commercial spirit of Italy became active and enterprising. Venice, Genoa, and Pisa, rose from inconsiderable towns, to be Wealthy and populous. Their naval power increased ; they visited the sea-ports of Spain, France, the Low Countries and England ; and infused a taste for the alluring productions of the East.

The crusades served greatly to hasten the mercantile progress of the Italians. The martial inclination of the Europeans, impelled by religious zeal, and inflamed by superstition, having prompted them to attempt the deliver-

10°6 ance °f the Holy Land from the dominion of the Infidels, vast armies, composed of all the nations in Europe, marched upon this wild enterprise, towards Asia. The Italian sea-ports furnished the necessary shipping and military stores ; for which, immense sums were received. Venice, in particular, advanced in commerce, power, and riches. Nor did their employers make those expensive and disastrous voyages without future benefit. They became familiar with distant regions, which, before, they knew onl) by name, or by the reports of credulous pilgrims ; and ascertained the arts, manners, and productions, of nations more polished than themselves.

That intercourse subsisted for nearly two hundred years ; during which period, many religious missionaries penetrated the East, far beyond the countries entered by the crusaders. After these, followed several illustrious travellers, incited either by the hope of riches, or a pure spirit of inquiry. Of the former passion, the most distinguished votary was

1322 ^ arco P°^°3 a nobleman of Venice : of the latter, sir John Mandeville, of England ; who returned, after an absence of more than thirty years, and published an account of his observations.

While this inclination towards research was gradually increasing, a discovery was made, the wonderful property of the magnet, which communicates to iron a tendency of pointing to the north, that had greater influence on navigation, than all the efforts of preceding ages. The precise epoch of this discovery cannot be ascertained. It is generally attributed to Gioia, a Neapolitan, and dated in the year 1302: but the supposition appears erroneous. The earliest notice with which we are acquainted, is by a French writer, Guyot de Provins ; who, in a poem written about the year 1180, plainly alludes to the magnetic needle being then in common use. The Historia Orientalis, of Vitriacus, who had made many voyages by sea, and published that work about forty years subsequent to the former ; the writings of Vicentius, at the same period, and many other authorities; coincide in establishing its previous introduction, and, consequently, in depriving the Neapolitan of any honour, further than for having increased its utility, by fixing it on a

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pivot, and enclosing it in a box.* Seamen were now enabled to abandon their timid course along the shore, and fearlessly to launch into the wide bosom of the ocean. The first appearance of increasing confidence, may be dated from the voyages of the Spaniards to the Canary islands. These, which, we have already mentioned, had been visited by th Carthaginians, were again discovered by that people : but the genius of naval enterprise was not at this period fully roused ; as navigation seems not to have advanced, then, beyond the limits which circumscribed it before the down fall of the Roman empire.

The era at length arrived, when man was allowed to pass the boundary within which he had been so long confined. The next considerable effort was made by the seamen of Portugal. In 1420, they sailed to Madeira ; (to which, they were directed by its accidental discovery by an Englishman ;) about forty years from that date, they discovered the Cape de Verd islands ; and soon afterwards, the Azores, situated in the Atlantic, nine hundred miles from any continent. When prosecuting their researches along the shores 1471 °^ -^ r * ca > tne y ventured to cross the equinoctial line ; equally pleased and astonished, on finding that region not only habitable, but populous and fertile. This occurred in the reign of Alphonso. His son, John the second, possessed talents, capable both of forming great designs and carrying them into execution. Patronised and aided by this indefatigable monarch, the examination and colonizing of the African continent became ardent and unremitting. As they advanced towards the south, the Portuguese found, that, instead of extending, according to the doctrine of Ptolemy, it appeared to contract, its breadth, towards the east. This unexpected discovery was not unprofitably made. It induced them to credit the ancient Phenician voyages around Africa, which had long been deemed fabulous ; and led them to conceive hopes, that, by following the same track, they might arrive at the East Indies, and engross, for a while, a traffic, which had

* " Valde necessarius est acus navigantibus mari," says VUriaeus : — the needle is very necessary to seamen. " Cum enim," observes Vicentius, " vias suas ad portum dirigere nesciunt, caeumen acus ad adamantem lapidem fricatum, per transversum in festuea parva infigunt, et vasi plene aquae immittunt :" — for, when they (the navigators,) know not how to find their way into a harbour, they fix the point of a needle, rubbed upon a hard stone, crosswise in a piece of wood, and place it in a small vesse' full of water.

always been so eagerly desired. The attainment of this object was entrusted to Bartholomew Diaz ; an experienced officer, distinguished alike for his sagacity, fortitude, and perseverance. After advancing a thousand miles farther than any of his predecessors, exposed to violent tempests, mutinies, and famine, he at last beheld that lofty promontory which terminates Africa on the south. But, to behold it, was all that he could accomplish. The v iolence of the winds, the shattered condition of his ships and turbulent spirit of his men, compelled him to return.

Diaz had called that promontory the Stormy Cape ; but the king, now entertaining a sanguine expectation of having found the long desired route to India, gave it a more appropriate name, The Cape of Good Hope.

The vast length of this voyage, with the furious stormswhich Diaz had encountered, so alarmed and intimidated the Portuguese, that some time was requisite to prepare their minds for the prosecution of their great design. In the interval, an event occurred, not less extraordinary than unexpected, unparalleled in the annals of naval enterprise — the discovery of a new continent, situated in the west.

The honour of accomplishing an exploit so sublime, was gained by Christopher Columbus. This great man, a native of Genoa, descended from a respectable family, was well qualified, by nature and education, to become distinguished on the ocean. Ardently inclined towards that element, he went to sea at the age of fourteen; and, in a few years, visited the coast of Iceland, (then frequented by the English on account of its fishery,) and advanced several degrees within the polar circle. After a variety of adventures, serving more to enlarge his knowledge, than to increase his fortune, he went to Lisbon ; a city in which there lived many of his countrymen, and w T here, having married a Portuguese lady, he fixed his residence. This alliance did not lessen his early attachment to the sea. It fortunately contributed to enlarge his naval information, and excite a desire of still further extending it. His wife was a daughter of Perestrello ; one of the captains employed by the Portuguese in their former navigations, and who had first carried them to Madeira. Columbus obtained possession of his journals ; the study of which inflamed his favourite passion, and rendered irresistible his impatience to visit the several countries which Perestrello had described. He accordingly made a voyage to Madeira ; and continued, diring many years, to trade with the Canaries, the Azores,

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the coast of Guinea, and all the other places discovered oy the Portuguese on the continent of Africa.

At that period, the great object of the Portuguese, as already narrated, was to find a passage to the East Indies. But they searched for it only by steering towards the south ; in hopes of accomplishing their wishes by turning to the east, when they had reached the southern extremity of Africa ; a course of so great extent, that a voyage from Europe to India must have appeared to them equally arduous and uncertain. Stimulated by this reflection, the active mind of Columbus, after attentively comparing the observations of modern pilots with the conjectures of the ancients, at last concluded, that, by sailing directly to the west, across the Atlantic Ocean, new countries, which it was likely formed a part of the great continent of Asia, must infallibly be discovered. The spherical figure of the earth was known ; its magnitude ascertained with some degree of accuracy : and sir John Mandeville had already, from astronomical demonstration, asserted, that it might be circumnavigated. It was evident, that the continents of Europe, Asia, and Africa, formed but a small portion of the terraqueous globe. It seemed rational, that the vast, unexplored space, was not entirely covered by water, but was occupied in some measure, by countries fit for the residence of man. These deductions did not rest merely on conjecture. Although the offspring of scientific theory , they were supported by recent observations. Timber, artificially carved, driven by a westerly wind, was seen floating at an unusual distance in the ocean : to the west of the Madeira isles, there had been found another piece, fashioned in the same manner, brought by the same wind ; and canes, of enormous size, resembling those described by Ptolemy, as peculiar to the Indies. Trees were frequently driven upon the Azores ; and, at one time, the dead bodies of two men, with singular features, not corresponding with the inhabitants of Europe, Africa, or Asia.

Fully satisfied with the truth of his system, Columbus was impatient to bring it to the test of experiment. The first step towards this, was to secure the patronage of some considerable power. As long absence had not lessened his affection for his native country, he wished that Genoa should reap the fruits of his ingenuity and labour ; and, accordingly, laid his scheme before the senate. But he had resided so long abroad, that his countrymen were unacquainted with his character ; and, not being able to form any just idea of 2 the principles upon which he founded his hopes of success they rejected his proposals, as the dream of a chimerical projector.

Columbus had now performed a natural duty ; a conduct, which, though it does not form the grandest, is certainly one of the most amiable features in his history ; and must be admired, while there is a mind clear enough to discern, or a heart sufficiently warm to conceive, an act of generosity.

He was not discouraged by this repulse. Instead of re linquishing his undertaking, he pursued it with increasing ardour. He made his next overture to the king of Portugal ; in whose dominions, he had long resided ; and whom he considered, on that account, as having the second claim to his services. John listened to his proposals, and appointed three eminent cosmographers to examine the merits of his plan. But these men, after drawing from Columbus all the information that treachery could devise, or their capacities understand, basely conspired to rob the ingenious seaman of his expected glory ; and the king adopted their perfidious counsel. The pilot, however, chosen to execute the fraud, was not less deficient in courage, than were his employers in dignity and justice. He returned to Lisbon, execrating the project as extravagant and dangerous.

Disgusted by this transaction, Columbus resolved to break off all intercourse with a nation, capable of so flagrant treachery. He instantly went to Spain, that he might lay his plan before Ferdinand and Isabella. But, he wisely increased the chances of success, by sending his brother Bartholomew into England, to negotiate with Henry the seventh ; who was reported to be one of the most sagacious and opulent princes of the age.

Though Spain was then engaged in a serious contest with Granada, the last of the Moorish kingdoms in that country, yet, Ferdinand and his queen paid so much regard to Columbus, as to submit the consideration of his plan to a confidential minister. To enumerate all the objections offered to his .scheme, or describe, in appropriate language, the firmness with which the philosophic stranger combated his successive disappointments, would neither be conformable with our design, nor within the compass of our ability. Some asserted, that he would find the ocean of infinite extent ; others, that, if he persisted in steering to the west, beyond a certain point, the convex figure of the earth would prevent his return ; and, that it was absurd to attempt open-

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ing a communication between the two opposite hemispheres, which nature had for ever disjoined.

But the total expulsion of the Moors produced a happy change in the disposition of the Spanish court, and excited, still further, the vigilant and generous patrons of Columbus, — Quintanella, and Santangel ; who took advantage of this prosperous situation of affairs, to press, once more, the solicitations of their friend. Their effort was successful. Though Ferdinand was still restrained by his characteristic caution and reserve, Isabella, alive to the glory which must accrue from the accomplishment of so grand an enterprise ; and, if historians be correct, anxious to spread the knowledge of the Christian religion ; declared her resolution of employing Columbus ; and, regretting the low state of her finances, offered to pledge her jewels, in order to complete the preparations for the voyage. A measure so humiliating to a feeling mind, was, however, fortunately prevented. Transported with gratitude and admiration, Santangel kissed Isabella's hand, and engaged to advance, immediately, the necessary sum. 1492 ^ n ^ e °^ ^P r ^> more than seven years from the date of his first application, an agreement with Columbus was concluded. The ships, of which he was to have the command, were fitted out at Palos ; a small town in the province of Andalusia. But the armament was not suitable, either to the rank of the nation by which it was equipped, or to the important service for which it was intended. It consisted only of three vessels. The largest, of inconsiderable burthen, called the Santa Maria, was commanded by Columbus, as admiral ; the second, named the Pinta, not superior in size to a large boat, by Martin Pinzon ; the third, of similar dimensions, called the Nigna, by Vincent Pinzon, a brother of the latter. The whole were victualled for twelve months, and provided with ninety men.

On the 3d of August, Columbus set sail. He steered directly for the Canary islands ; and, having refitted his crazy vessels, departed from Gomera, on the 6th day of September. Hojding his course due west, he left the usual track of navigation, and stretched boldly into seas unfrequented and unknown. His sailors, alarmed at the distance which they had proceeded without finding the ex pec ted land, began to mutiny, threatened to throw him overboard, and placed him in a situation, in which any other man would have yielded to their entreaties to return. Bu* he still maintained his accustomed serenity and resolution Fertile in expedients, possessing a thorough knowledge of mankind, an insinuating address, and the talent of governing the minds of others, he promised solemnly to his men, that, provided they would obey his commands for three days longer, and that, in the meantime, land were not discovered, he would comply with their request.

Columbus did not hazard much, by confining himself to a period so short. For some days before, the sounding line had reached the bottom, and brought up soil which indicated land to be at no great distance. The flocks of birds increased, and contained many of a description supposed not to fly far from shore. A cane was observed, that seemed to have been recently cut ; and a branch of a tree, with fresh berries. The clouds around the sun assumed a new appearance ; the air was more mild, and, during the night, the wind became unequal and variable. Each succeeding hour confirmed Columbus in his opinion of being near land. On the evening of the 11th of October, he ordered the sails to be furled, the ships to lie to, and a strict watch to be kept, to guard against the danger of running ashore in the night ; an interval of suspense and expectation, during which all remained on deck, intently gazing towards that quarter where they hoped to discover the interesting object of their wishes.

The period at length arrived. Columbus observed a light, which seemed to be carried from place to place ; and, a little after midnight, there was heard from the Pinta the joyful cry of Land !

When morning dawned, an island was seen, about two leagues to the north, presenting the aspect of a delightful country. All the boats were immediately manned and armed. The Spaniards rowed towards the shore, with their colours displayed, with martial music, and all the dazzling insignia of military pomp. As they approached the beach, they saw it covered with a multitude of people, whose attitudes and gestures expressed wonder and amazement. Columbus was the first who set foot on this new world which he had discovered. His men followed ; and all kneeling, kissed the ground which they had long desired, but expected never to behold : he then erected a crucifix 3 returned thanks to God, and, with the usual formalities, took possession of the country.

To this island, called by the natives Guanahani, . Columbus gave the name of St. Salvador. It is one of that

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large cluster, called the Lucaya or Bahama isles ; situated above three thousand miles to the west, but only four degrees to the south, of Gomera ; so little had he deviated from his intended course.

After discovering several other islands, amongst which were Cuba and Hayti, (the latter named by Columbus, Hispaniola,) the shattered condition of his vessels, and the general eagerness, of his seamen to return to their native country, constrained him to make preparations for his departure. He did not, however, neglect using every precaution to secure the benefit of a first discovery. With the consent of the cazique or sovereign of the district, he erected a fort in Hispaniola : in which, he left a party of his men ; and, on the 4th of January, sailed for Europe ; 1493 wnere ne an# ived, after experiencing dangers and fatigues which required all his skill and fortitude to surmount.

Various conjectures were formed respecting these newly discovered countries. Columbus adhered to his original opinion, that they were part of those vast regions of Asia, comprehended under the general name of India. From their productions, this idea seemed correct. Gold was known to abound in India ; a metal of which he had obtained samples so promising, as led him to believe* that rich mines of it would be found. Cotton, another production of the Indies, was common there. The pimento of the islands he imagined was a species of the India pepper. The birds brought home by him were adorned with the brilliant plumage which distinguishes those of India : the alligator of the one, seemed to be the crocodile of the other. That opinion of Columbus, the Spaniards and the other nations of Europe have adopted. The name of Indies was given to those islands by Ferdinand and Isabella, in a ratification of the former agreement with the illustrious discoverer ; and, even after the error which gave rise to that opinion was detected, the name of West Indies has remained, and the aborigines are called Indians.