History of the United States : from their first settlement as colonies, to the cession of Florida, in eighteen hundred and twenty-one

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V

HISTORY

OF THE FROM THEIR

Chapter I

Rejlections, Imfirovements in Astronomy^ jVavigatiofii and Geografi/iy. Voyages of Columbus.

ALTHOUGH the period of man*s residence in this sublunary world is much curtailed, his amount of happiness is increased. ProTidence has more than compensated the diminution of his years, by the extension of his knowledge. His mental faculties are no longer engrossed by the mere operations of his body. When his corporeal frame is employed in its daily avocations, or reclined beneath the friendly shade, to recruit its exhausted powers, his mind ranges with delight over the cultivated field of science. His acquaintance with distant regions is enlarged ; he goes abroad to indulge his curiosity, or makes an ideal excursion to amuse his imagination.

The exploring of the deeply hidden nature of the elements has not been more tardy than our advances in geography. It is true, that the Chaldeans and the Egyptians, at a time even beyond the most ancient records of authentic history, had marked the revolutions of the heavenly bodies, with a degree of industry and success, no less worthy of admiration than uifficult of comprehension, when we contemplate their scanty apparatus; and, thiit during the refined ages, many centuries before the Christian era, the latter, or perhaps the ti reeks, had discovered tiie form, and the dimensions, of this L'lohc, with a geometrical txactuess approachirii; nearly to the trutii; ye*, their ideas concerning dislant countries were extremely deicctive and perplexed. On this subject, their A theories were, in general, absurd, and tended to restrain inquiry; thus, strengthening the maxim, that conscious ignorance is less injurious than dogmatical err A

About six centuries before Christ, Pythagoras of Samos became acquainted with the learning of Egypt, and diffused his observations throughout Greece and Italy. He taught that the sun was the centre of the universe, that the earth was round, that people had antipodes, and that the moon reflected the rays of the sun; a system deemed chimerical, until the philosophy and deep inquiries of the sixteenth century proved it to be incontestible and true. Philolaus, who flourished about a century afterwards, proceeded a step further in astronomy. Embracing the doctrine of Pythagoras, he asserted the annual motion of the earth about the sun; and, only a short time had elapsed, when its diurnal revolution on its own axis was promulgated by Hicetas, a Syracusan. Nearly at the sanje time, Meto» and Euctemon made improvements in the science at Athens; and, subsequently, in various parts, Eudoxus and Calippus, Aristarchus, Eratosthenes, Archimedes, and Hipparchus; the last of whomi about one hundred and forty years before our era, ascertained the latitudes and longhudes of more than one thousand of the fixed stars, and enriched astronomy with many other valuable discoveries. In our first century, Ptolemy, an Egyptian, formed a theory, which, although erroneous, was followed by all nations for many ages. He composcil a great work, called the Almagest, containing his own, and the observations of his most iilusiiious predecessors. This record, saved from the destruction of the Alexandrine library, when burned by the Saracens in the seventh century, was translated into Arabic in the ninth, by the Emperor Frederick the second, and into Latin in the thirteenth. Thus, were the acquirements' in astronomy happily preserved, and extensively diffused.

From the latter period until the discovery of America, the science was cherished by many distiiiguished philosophers, — -Alphonso, king of Castile, Roger Bacon, an English monk» Purbach, and Mullcr. The latter, a native of Koeningsbcrg, who died in 1476, invented several instruments useful in navigation; amor.gst which, was an ariniliary astrolabe, resembling one formerly used by Hipparchus and Pioieniy at Alexandria; with which, and a good time piece, he made many observations.

Enabled by this preliminary sketch, to appreciate more fully the efforts of the different navigators in extending the sphere of commercial enterprise, we shall review, with additional pleasure, their adventures, from the earliest accounts, to the accomplishment of the great undertaking, which gave, to what is denominated the old world, a knowledge of the new.

To the desire of riches, may chiefly be assigned our enlarged acquaintance with the globe which we inhabit. The ancients were not less eager than the moderns in the pursuit of wealth; but their progress was unaided by the faithful and constant guide, which now directs the mariner during the darkness of the night, or the gloomy horrors of the tempest. Though acquainted with the property of the magnet, by which it attracts iron, its more important and amazing quality, of pointing to the poles, had entirely escaped their notice. Their navigation was therefore timid and uncertain. They seldom dared to sail beyond the sight of land; but crept along the coast, exposed to every danger, and retarded by innumerable obstructions.

The Sidonians and Tyrians were more enterprising than any other people of antiquity. Astronomy, on its decline in Chaldea and Egypt, having passed into Phenicia, those people applied it to navigation; steering by the north polar star: and, hence, became masters of the sea, and almost of the whole commerce of the world. Their ships frequented not only all the ports in the Mediterranean, but were the first that ventured beyond the straits of Gades, now called Gibraltar, or that visited the western coasts of Africa and Spain. At the same time, having obtained several commodious harbours towards the bottom of the Arabian Gulf, they established, after the manner of the Egyptians, a regular intercourse with Arabia and the continent of Indin, on the one hand, and with the coast of Africa, on the other; from which countries, they imported many valuable commodities, and, for a long while, engrossed that lucrative trade without a rival. They landed their cargoes at Elath, the safest harbour in the Red Sea, towards the north. Thence, they carried them, by land, to Rhinocolura on the Mediterranean, re-shipped them, and transported them to Tyre. The vast wealth which the Phenicians had acquired by this monopoly, incited the Jews, under David and Solomon, to pursue a similar trade. The latter fitted out fleets, which, under the direction of Phenician pilots, sailed from the Red Sea to Tarshish and Ophir; two ports supposed to have been situated in India and Africa. Fronn these, the Jewi returned with merchandise so valuable, as soon diffused wealth and splendour throughout Israel. But the instructions even of the Phenicians were inadequate to establish the commerce of a people, whose singular institutions formed a national character, repugnant to a liberal intercourse with strangers. Carthage, a colony of Tyre, applied to naval affairs with unremitting ardour, ingenuity, and success. It early rivaled and surpassed the parent state in opulence and power. Without contending with the mother country, for the trade of the east, the Carthaginians directed their attention towards the west and north; and, following the course already opened, passed the straits of Gades, visited not only all the coasts of Spain and Gaul, but reached the moi;e distant shores of Britain. Yet they were not satisfied; they were the more eagerly stimulated by the extent of their discoveries. They carried their researches to the south. Stretching along the western coast of Africa, they sailed almost to the tropic of Cancer, planted several Golonies, in order to civilize the nations and accustom them to commerce, and discovered the Fortunate Islands, now Jinown by the name of the Canaries; the utmost boundary of ancient navigation in the western ocean.

Curiosity, as well as commercial avidity, induced the^m to continue their researches. To those motives, were owing the famous voyages of Hanno and Himilco. Their fleets were equipped by authority of the senate, and at the public expense. Proceeding towards the south, Hanno advanced much nearer to the equinoctial line than any former navigator; and Himilco explored the western coasts of Europe. Of the same nature, was the extraordinary voyage of the Phenicians around Africa. A Phenician fleet, prepared by Necho, king of Egypt, sailed, we are told, about six-hundred years before the Christian era, from a port in the Red Sea, passed the southern promontory of Africa, (now called the Cape of Good Hope,) and, after a voyage of three years, arrived by the straits of Gades, at the Nile. Unfortunately, the particulars of those navigations were not communicated to the rest of mankind. All authentic memorials respecting the great naval skill of the Phenicians and Carthaginians seem in a great measure to have perished, when the maritime power of the former was annihilated by Alexander, and the empire of the latter was overturned by the Roman arms.

The states of Greece scarcely pursued any commerce beyond the confines of the Mediterranean. Their ignorance of geography is almost incredible to us. But their knowledge was much enlarged by Alexander's expedition to the east. Nor were the Romans less remarkable for their inattention to that science. In the history of the Roman empire, hardly one event occurs evincing a regard to geographical enquiry or navigation, further than it was connected with the desire of conquest. Indeed, there prevailed amongst the ancients an opinion, which conveys a striking idea of the small progress made by them in the knowledge of the habitable globe. They supposed that the earth was divided into five regions; which they distinguished by the name of zones. Two of these, one at the north, the other at the south pole, they termed frigid; believing that the extreme cold which reigned perpetually in both was destructive to animal life. Another, which was seated under the line, and extended on each side towards the tropics, they called the torrid zone; imagining it to be so burned up with unremitting heat as to be equally destitute of inhabitants. To the other two regions, they gave the appellation of temperate; and taught that these, being the only situations in which life could possibly subsist, were assigned to man for his habitation. Wild as seems this opinion at the present day, it was adopted as a system by the most enlightened philosophers, and the most accurate historians, of Greece and Rome. Promulgated by so respectable authority, that extravagant theory served to render their ignorance perpetual; as it represented all attempts to open a communication with distant regions of the earth impracticable and hopeless. Even the small degree of accurate geographical knov/ledge which those people had occasionally obtained, was almost entirely lost on the fall of the Roman empire. The various nations of the north, who, in the fifth century, settled in the different provinces, were unacquainted with regular government or laws; strangers to letters, destitute of arts, ignorant of their use, unambitious of their acquirement. No intercourse existed even amongst themselves. Constantinople, however, was so fortunate as to escape their destructive rage. There, the ancient arts and discoveries were preserved, and commerce continued to flourish, when almost extinct in every other part of Europe.

At length, the rude tribes m Italy having acquired some

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idea of regular government, and sonae relish for the modes of ciril life, Europe gradually recovered from its degradation. The Italian merchants, notwithstanding the violent antipathy, which, as Christians, they possessed against the followers of Mahomet, repaired to Alexandria, and established with that port a lucrative trade. The commercial spirit of Italy became active and enterprising. Venice, Genoa, and Pisa, rose, from inconsiderable towns, to be wealthy and populous. Their naval power increased; they visited the sea-ports of Spain, France, the Low Countries, and England; and infused a taste for the alluring productions of the East.

The crusades served greatly to hasten the mercantile progress of the Italians. The martial inclination of the Europeans, impelled by religious zeal, and inflamed by superstition, having prompted them to attempt the deliverance of ^QQ the Holy Land from the dominion of the Infidels, vast armies, composed of all the nations in Europe, marched upon this wild enterprise towards Asia. The Italian sea-ports furnished the necessary shipping and military stores; for which, immense sums were received. Venice, in particular, advanced in commerce, power, and riches. Nor did their employers make those expensive and disastrous voyages without future benefit. They became familiar with distant regions, which, before, they knew only by name, or by the reports of creiulous pilgrims; and ascertained the arts, manners, and' productions, of nations more polished than themselves.

That intercouse subsisted for nearly two-hundred years; during which period, many individuals were induced, by a different motive of religion, to penetrate the East, far be- . yond the countries entered by the crusaders. After these, followed several illustrious travellers, incited either by the hope of riches or a pure spirit of inquiry. Of the former passion, the most distinguished votary was Marco Polo, a .„ nobleman of Venice: of the latter, sir John Mandeville, of England; who returned, after an absence of more than thirty years, and published an account of his observations.

Whilst this inclination towards research was gradually increasing, a discovery was made, the wonderful property of the magnet, which communicates to iron a tendency of pointing to the north, that had greater influence on naviga- j "tion than all the efforts of preceding ages. The precise era of this discovery cannot be ascertained. It is generally" at- j

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tributed to Gioia, a Neapolitan, and dated in the year 1302: but tlie supposition appears erroneous. The earliest notice with which we are acquainted, is by a French writer, Guyot de Provins; who, in a poem wdttcn about the year 1180, plainly alludes to the magnetic needle being then in common use. The Historia Orientalis, of Vitriacus, who had made many voyages by sea, and published that work about forty years subsequent to the former; the writings of Vicentius, at the same period, and many other authorities, coincide in establishing its previous introduction,* and, consequently, in depriving the Neapolitan of any honour, further than for having increased its utility, by fixing it on a pivot, and inclosing it in a box. Seamen were now enabled to abandon their timid course along the shore, and fearlessly to launch into the wide bosom of the ocean. The first appearance of increasing confidence may be dated from the voyages of the Spaniards to the Canary islands. These, which, we have already mentioned, had been visited by the Carthaginians, were again discovered by that people: but the genius of naval enterprise was not at this period fully roused; as navigaiion seems not to have advanced, then, beyond the limits which circumscribed it before the downfal of the Roman empire.

The era at length arrived, when man was allowed to pass the boundary within which he had been so long confined. The next considerable effort was made by the seamen of Portugal; one of the smallest and least pov*erful of all the European kingdoms, and, hitherto, not remarkable for assiduity. In 1420, they sailed to Madeira; (to which they were directed by its accidental discovery by an Englishman;) about forty years from that date, they discovered the Cape de Verd islands; and soon afterwards, the Azores, which are situated in the Atlantic, nine-hundred miles from any continent. When prostcuting their researches along the shores . -,. of Africa, they ventured to cross the equinoctial line; equally pleased and astonished, on finding that

» " Valde necessariuB est acns nayigaiitibus mari," says Vitriacus: — the needle is very necessary to seamen. " Cum enim," observes Vicentius, '*' viassuas ad portum dingere ncsciiuu. crcumen acws an adamantem lapidera fricatam, per traiisversum inlestiicri paiva innguut, et vasi pleno aquae imm;ttant:" — For, when they (tiie navigators,) know not how to tind their way i:ito a harbour, they fix the point of a needle, rubbed upon a hard stone, crQss'.vise in a piece of wood, aud place it ic a small Tessel fall of water.

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region not only habitable, but populous and fertile. This occurred in the reign of Alphonso. His son, John the second, possessed talents capable both of forming great designs and carrying them into execution. Patronised and aided by this indefatigable monarch, the examination and colonizing of the African continent became ardent and unremitting. As they advanced towards the south, the Portuguese found, that instead of extending, according to the doctrine of Ptolemy, it appeared sensibly to contract, its breadth, towards the east. This unexpected discovery was not unproiitably made. It induced them to credit the ancient Phenician voyages around Africa, which had long been deemed fabulous; and led them to conceive hopes, that, by following the same track, they might arrive at the East Indies, and engross, for a while, a traffic which had always been so eagerly desired. The attainment of this object was entrusted to Bartholomew Diaz; an experienced officer, distinguished alike for his sagacity, fortitude, and perseverance. After advancing a thousand miles further than any of his predecessors, exposed to violent tempests, mu- , .Q- tinies, and famine, he at last beheld that lofty promontory which terminates Africa on the south. But to behold it was all that he could accomplish. The violence of the winds, the shattered condition of his ships, and turbulent spirit of his men, compelled him to return.

Diaz had called that promontory the Stormy Cape; but the king, now entertaining a sanguine expectation of having found the long desired route to India, gave it a more appropriate name. The Cape of Good Hope.

The vast length of this voyage, with the furious storms which Diaz had encountered, so alarmed and intimidated the Portuguese, that some time was requisite to prepare their minds for the prosecution of their great design. In the interval, an event occurred, no less extraordinary than unexpected, unparalleled in the annals of naval enterprise— the discovery of a new continent, situated in the west. •

The honour of accomplishing an exploit so sublime was gained by Christopher Columbus. This great man, a native of Genoa, descended from a respectable family, was well qualified, by nature and education, to become distinguished on the ocean. Ardently Inclined towards that element, he went to sea at the age of fourteen; and, in a few years, visited the coasts of Iceland, (then frequented by the

English on account of its fishery,) and advanced several degrees within the polar circle. After a variety of adventures, serving more to enlarge his knowledge than to increase his fortune, he went to Lisbon; a city in which there lived many of his countrymen, and where, having married a Portuguese lady, he fixed his residence. This alliance did not lessen his early attachment to the sea. It fortunately contributed to enlarge his naval information, and excite a desire of still further extending il. His wife was a daughter of Perestrello; one of the captains employed by the Portuguese in their former navigations, and who had first carried them to Madeira. Columbus got possession of his journals; the study of which inflamed his favourite passion and rendered irresistible his impatience to visit the several countries which Perestrello had described. He accordingly made a voyage to Madeira; and continued during many years to traile with the Canaries, the Azores, the coast of Guinea, and all the other places discovered by the Portuguese on the continent of Africa.

At that period, the great object of the Portuguese, as already narrated, was to find out a passage to the East Indies. But they searched for it only by steering towards the south; in hopes of accomplishing their wishes by turning to the east, when they had reached the southern extremity of Africa ; a course of so great extent, that a voyage from Europe to India must have appeared to them equally arduous and uncertain. Stimulated by this reflection, the active mind of Columbus, after attentively comparing the observations of modern pilots with the conjectures ot the ancients, at last concluded, that, by sailing directly to the west, across the Atlantic Ocean, new countries, which it was likely formed a part of the great continent of Asia, must infallibly be discovered. The spherical figure of the earth was known; its magnitude ascertained with some degree of accuracy: and sir John Mandeville had already, from astronomical demonstration, asserted, that it might be circumnavigated. It was evident, that the continents of Europe, Asia, and Africa, formed but a small portion of the terraqueous globe. It seemed rational, that the vast, unexplored space, was not entirely covered by water, but was occupied, in some measure, by countries fit for the residence of man. These deductions did not rest merely on conjecture. Although the off*spring of scientific theory, they were supported by recent observations. Timber, artificially carved, driven by a westerly wind, was seen floating at an unusual distance in the ocean: to the west of the Madeira isles, there had been found another piece, fashioned in the same manner, brought by the same wind; and canes, of enormous size, resembling those described by Ptolemy, as peculiar to the Indies. Trees were frequently driven upon the Azores; and, at one time, the dead bodies of two men, with singular features, not corresponding with the inhabitants of Europe, Africa, or Asia.

Fully satisfied with the truth of his system, Columbus was impatient to bring it to the test of experiment. The first step towards this, was to secure the patronage of some considerable power. As long absence had not lessened his affection for his native country, he wished that Genoa should reap the fruits of his ingenuity and labour; and, accordingly, laid his scheme before the senate. But he had resided so long abroad, that his countrymen were unacquainted with his character; and not being able to form any just idea of the principles upon which he founded any hopes of success, they rejected his proposals, as the dream of a chimerical projector.

Columbus had now performed a natural duty ; a conduct, which though it does not form the grandest, is certainly one of the most amiable, features in his history, and must be admired whilst there is a mind clear enough to discern, or a heart sufficiently warm to conceive, an act of generosity.

He was not discouraged by this repulse. Instead of relinquishing his undertaking, he pursued it with increasing ardour. He made his next overture to the king of Portugal ; in whose dominions he had long resided, and whom he considered, on that account, as having the second claim to his services. John listened to his proposals, and appointed three eminent cosmographers to examine the merits of his plan. But these men, after drawing from Columbus all the information which treachery could devise, or their capacities understand, basely conspired to rob the ingenious "Jieaman of his expected glory ; and the king, forgetting on this occasion all sentiments of honour, adopted their perfidious counsel. The pilot, however, chosen to execute the fraud, was no less deficient in courage, than were his employers in dignity and justice. He returned to Lisbon, execrating the project as extravagant and dangerous.

Disgusted by this transaction, Columbus resolved to break off all intercourse with a nation capable of so flagrant treach-

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cry. He instantly went to Spain, that he nr.ip:ht lay his plan before Ferdinand and Isabella- But, as he had already experienced the uncertain issue of applications to potentates and ministers, he ^visely increased the chances of success, by sending his brother Bartholemew into England, to negociate with Henry the seventh ; \vho was reported to be one of the most sagacious and opulent princes of the age.

Though Spain was then engaged in a serious contest with Grenada, the last of the Moorish kingdoms in that country, yet, Ferdinand and his queen paid so much regard to Columbus, as to submit the consideration of his plan to a confidential minister. To enumerate all the objections offered to his scheme, or poitt av, in appropriate colours, the firm* ness with which the philosophic stranger combated his successive disappointments, would neither be conformable with our design, nor within the compass of our ability. Some asserted, that he would find thr ocean of infinite extent: others, that if he persisted in steeting to the Avest, beyrnd a certain point, the convex figure of the earth would prevent his return; and, that it was absurd to attempt opening a communication between the two opposite hemispheres, which nature had for ever disjoined.

But the total expulsion of the Moors produced a happy change in the disposition of the Spanish court, and excited, still further, the vigilant and generous patrons of Columbus, — Quintapella, and Santangel ; who took advantage of this joyful situation of affairs, to press, once more, the solicitations of their friend. Their effort was successful. Though Ferdinand was still restrained by his characteristic caution and reserve, Isabella, alive to the glory which must accrue from the accomplishment of so grand an enterprise; and, if historians be correct, nnxious -o spread the knowledge of the Christian religion ; dtclared her resolution of employing Columbus ; and, regre'ting the low stale of her financesi offered to pledge her jewels, in order to complete the preparations for the voyage. A measure so humiliatinc to a t'eeliiig mind was, however, fortun.nely prevented Transported with gratitude ai'd admiration, Santangel kissed Isabella's hand, and engaged to advance, imn>ediately, the necessary sum.

1499 ^^ ^^^ ^^^h of April, more than seven years from the

the date of his first application, an agreement with

Columbus was concluded. The ships, of which he was to

have the command, were fitted out at Palos j a small town in the province of Andalusia. But the armament was not suitable, either to the rank of the nation by which it was equipped nor to the important service for which it was intended. It consisted only of three vessels. The largest, of inconsiderable burthen, called the Santa Maria, was commanded by Columbus, as admiral; the second, named the Pinta, not superior in size to a large boat, by Martin Pinzon ; and the third, of similar dimensions, called the Nigna, by Vincent Pinzon, a brother of the latter. The whole were victualled for twelve months, and provided with ninety men.

On the 3d of August, Columbus set sail. He steered directly for the Canary islands ; and, having refitted his crazy vessels, departed from Gomera on the 6th day of September. Holding his course due west, he left the usual track of navigation, and stretched boldly into seas unfrequented and unknown. His sailors, alarmed at the distance which theyhad proceeded without finding the expected land, began to mutiny, and placed Columbus in a situation, in which any other man would have yielded to their entreaties to return. But he still maintained his accustomed serenity and resolution. Fertile in expedients, possessing a thorough knowledge ot mankind, an insinuating address, and the talent of governing the mhids of others, he promised solemnly to his men, that, provided they would obey his commands for three days longer, and that, in the mean time, land were not discovered, he would comply with their request.

Columbus did not hazard much by confining himself to a period so short. For some days before, the sounding line had reached the bottom, and brought up soil which indicated land to be at no great distance. The flocks of birds increased, and contained many of a description supposed not to fly far from shore. A cane was observed, that seemed to have been recently cut ; and a branch of a tree, with red berries, perfectly fresh. The clouds around the sun assumed a new appearance; the air was more mild, and, during the night, the wind became unequal and variable. Each succeeding hour confirmed Columbus in his opinion of being near land. On the evening of the 1 1th of October, he ordered the sails to be furled, the ships to lie to, and a strict watc!- to be k-;pt, to guarid against the danger of running ashore in the night; anintet-val of suspense and expectation, during which all rema'ned on deck, iiitently gazing towards that quarter where they hoped to discover the interesting object of their wishes.

The period at length arrived. Columbus observed a light, which seemed to be carried from place to place ; and, a little after midnight, there was heard from the Pintathe joyful cry of Land !

When morning dawned, an island was seen, about two leagues to the north : its verdant fields well stored with wood, and watered by many rivulets ; presenting the aspect of a delightful country. All the boats we?e immediately manned and armed. The Spaniards rowed towards the shore, with their colours displayed, with martial music, and all the dazzling insignia of military pomp. As they approached the beach, they saw it covered with a multitude of people, whose attitudes and gestures expressed wonder and amazement. Columbus was the first who set foot on this new world which he had discovered. His men followed ; and all kneeling, kissed the ground that they had long desired, but expected never to behold: he then erected a crucifix, returned thanks to God, and, with the usual formalities, took possession of the country.

To this island called by the natives Guanahani, Columbus gave the name of St. Salvador. It is one of that large cluster called the Lucaya or Bahama isles ; situated above three-thousand miles to the west, but only four degrees to the south, of Gomera; so little had he deviated from his intended course.

After discovering several other islands, amongst which were Cuba and Hayti, (the latter named by tiolumbus, Hispaniola,) the shattered condition of his vessels, and the general eagerness of his seamen to return to their native country, constrained him to make preparations for his departure. He did not, however, neglect using every precaution to secure the benefit of a first discovery. With the consent of the cazique or sovereign of the district, he erected a fort in Hispaniola; in which he left a party of his men, under the command of an experienced officer; and on the 4lh of Jan- . -„ uary sailed for Europe; where he arrived after, experiencing dangers and fatigues which required all his skill and fortitude to surmount.