American history for schools ...

Front matter

Class Book.

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Gqp^l^i

Contents

I. The "Western Continent,

II. Discoveries of Columbus,

III. Mound-Builders. — Indians. — Esquimaux,

Chapter I. The Western Continent

The Fifteenth Century (extending from 1400 to 1500 A. D.) was an era of great changes in Europe. It put an end to the darkness of the Middle Ages. It witnessed the revival of learning and science, and the birth of many useful arts, among which not the least was Printing. The invention of the Mariner's Compass in the preceding century having enabled sailors to go out of sight of land, a thirst for exploring unknown seas was awakened. Long voyages were undertaken, and important discoveries made. It was in this age of mental activity and growing knowledge that America was discovered.

America is often called the New World ; not that it is younger than the other continents, but because at the time of its discovery in 1492 it was unknown, or neu\ to Europeans. It is also called the Western Continent, to distinguish it from the Eastern, which embraces Europe, Asia, and Africa, — and the South-eastern, or Australia.

Position of the Western Continent. — The map on the next page shows how these continents lie. The Western is separated from the Eastern, on one side by the Atlantic Ocean, varying in width from 800 to 3,600 miles ; and on the other, by the Pacific.

The Pacific, from its greatest width of 10,000 miles nar-

G

THE WESTERN CONTINENT.

rows toward the north by reason of the convergence of the shores. It will be seen from the map that the north-western point of the Western Continent approaches verj'- near to the north-eastern extremity of Asia. Behring (beer' mg) Strait, which separates them, at its narrowest part, is only thirty-six miles wide.

Size.— Divisions. — The Western Continent includes more than one-fourth of the land-surface of the earth. It is nearly divided by an arm of the Atlantic into two parts, distinguished as North and South America, connected by the Isthmus of Panama {pan-a-mah'), or Darien\

The present territory of the United States embraces nearly half of North America, and one-fourth of the entire continent. The other half of North America is composed of the British Possessions, Mexico, and the republics of Central America. In South America are included the empire of Brazil and a number of independent republics.

Natural Features. — The natural features of the New World are on the grandest scale. Its lakes and rivers, unsurpassed in size and number, afford wonderful facilities for inland navigation. It is traversed throughout its length by a vast mountain-chain, containing numerous snow-crowned

ANIMAL LIFE.

peaks and volcanoes of stupendous grandeur. From this great chain spread out immense table-lands, which lose themselves in low plains rendered fruitful by the streams that intersect them. Six-sevenths of the soil is capable of cultivation, and much of it is unsurpassed in fertility. Invaluable fields of coal, and rich deposits of the useful and precious metals, are found in various parts.

Animal Life. — Remains found buried beneath the surface show that gigantic animals, now extinct, once inhabited the Western Continent. Among these were the mammoth, a clumsy, hairy animal resembling the elephant, — the mas'todon, similar in appearance but larger, with tusks over ten feet long, — and a tenant of the waters, seventy feet in length.

The wild animals now found in America, however, are mostly inferior to the corresponding ones of the Old World. The lion of the Eastern Continent is here replaced by the puma (panther, or cougar), the tiger by the jag'uar, the rhinoceros by the tapir, the camel by the llama. But to the New World belong the largest members of the bear and the deer family.

The horse, the ox, and other domestic animals, were introduced by Europeans after the discovery of the continent. Among birds, the wild-turkey, the toucan, and the hummingbird are peculiar to America.

Discovery by Norsemen. — We have said that America

The Mammoth.

THE WESTERN CONTINENT.

was discovered in the fifteenth century; but the northern parts of the continent were known to the bold sailors of Norway nearly five hundred years before. Iceland (see Map below), discovered by accident, was colonized by these Norsemen {N'orthmen) in 874 ; and somewhat later a Norwegian navigator, attempting to reach the island, was driven n^xcTN by a storm to the south-west. Here he discovered a snowy headland, which he named Hvidsaerk (tohite shirt), and which is now known as Cape Farewell, the southern extremity of Greenland.

No attempt to follow up this discovery appears to have been made for more than a hundred years ; till finally Red Er'ic, compelled to fly from Iceland, sought this distant coast of which traditions were still preserved, found it, and spent three years in exploring the surrounding waters. Through his efforts, the Greenland coast was speedily settled ; and in the year 1000 one of Eric's sons sailed thence to the south-west in quest of new discoveries. He coasted the mainland for many miles, sighted Cape Cod, and finally wintered in what he called Vinland (vine-land), supposed to be identical with parts of Rhode Island and Massachusetts.

SCANDINAVIAN SETTLEMENTS. 9

Many subsequent voyages were made to the American mainland for wood, and it was even attempted to plant a permanent colony in Vinland, — but without success, on account of the hostility of the natives.

After three centuries of prosperity, however, the Scandinavian colonies in Greenland began to decay. Emigration thither was forbidden ; " the black death " carried off many of the people, and the rest fell victims to the natives, and to a piratical fleet which made a descent upon the coast. With the unfortunate colonists died out all knowledge of Vinland, except what was buried in Icelandic records and traditions. The Western Continent, once more lost to the civilized world, remained to be rediscovered by the genius of Columbus.

questions on the maps.

3lap, p. 6. — Which is the largest of the three continents shown? Which is the smallest ? Which extends farthest south ? What would be the most direct way of reaching the Western Continent from Europe ? From Africa ? From Asia ? Which of the oceans is the largest ? AVhat part of the Pacific is broadest ? What part is narrowest ? What three grand divisions constitute the Old World ? What two, the New World ?

Mai), P' S What were Norway and Sweden anciently called?

What islands lie about midway between Norway and Iceland? In what part of Greenland were the Norse settlements ? What land south-west from Greenland ? Describe the route of the Norsemen to the New World.

Chapter II. Discoveries Of Columbus

Christopher Columbus was born about 143e5, at Genoa, then one of the leading commercial cities of Italy. Well grounded in geography, astronomy, and navigation, at the

10 DISCOVERIES OF COLUMBUS.

age of fourteen he went to sea, and for the next twentyeight years was engaged in various voyages, — extending beyond Iceland on the north, southward to Guinea, and as far west as the Azores', which islands the Portuguese had discovered shortly before.

The profitable East Indian trade, carried on at this time by way of the Mediterranean and the Red Sea, was chiefly in the hands of Venice. The two most enterprising maritime countries were Portugal and Spain. Portuguese navigators had coasted Africa to its southern extremity ; which, in the anticipation of reaching the Indies by rounding it, they had called the Cape of Good Hope. Their voyages had proved that the earth was not, as once believed, encircled by a belt of impassable heat at the equator ; but superstitious fears of terrible storms, frightful monsters, and a " Sea of Darkness " out of which a gigantic hand would rise to crush the too venturesome mariner, had prevented any attempts to explore the western waters of the Atlantic.

The shape of the earth and its revolution round the sun had not at this time been established. Most that was known of Eastern Asia was derived from the wonderful stories of Marco Polo, who had drawn lively pictures of Cathay' (China), with its mountains of precious stones and lakes of pearls, — and of Cipango (Japan), with its golden-floored palace and other marvels of wealth — but had conveyed little geographical knowledge that could be relied on.

The studies of Columbus had convinced him that the earth was round ; and, supposing it to be much smaller than it really is, he believed that Asia could be easily reached by standing boldly out across the unknown Atlantic.

Various objects evidently not of European origin had been driven by w^est winds on the Azores ; among them, the bodies of two men that seemed of a new race. Whence could they come, but from some land across the ocean? This land Columbus determined to reach ; but he was poor

HIS FIRST VOYAGE. 11

— he had no ships. He must enlist some state in the enterprise, and thus obtain the necessary outfit. Full of religious enthusiasm, he regarded this voyage to the western seas as his peculiar mission, and himself (as his name Christopher imports) the appointed Christ-hearer^ or Gospel-hearer^ to the natives of the new lands he felt that he was destined to discover.

First Voyage of ColumuUS. — x\fter unsuccessful negotiations with the king of Portugal, Columbus in 1484 betook himself to the court of Spain. Ferdinand and Isabella, the sovereigns of that countrv, were then warring with the Moors, and their treasury was wellnigh exhausted. Yet Isabella, though the plans of Columbus after years of discouraging delay were condemned as visionary by a council of her learned men, was at length persuaded to fit out two vessels for the voyage. To these small car'avels, which had no decks and would now be regarded as unfit even for coasting purposes, Columbus, with the aid of his friends, added a third and larger vessel. Men having with difficulty been obtained, and Columbus having been furnished with a letter from the king and queen to the Grand Khan of Tartary, the little squadron sailed August 3, 1492, from Palos (2Kih'loce), a seaport on the south-western coast of Spain.

The trials of the voyage commenced when the farthest land of the Canaries faded from sight (September 9tli). Then the hearts of the sailors failed, and many gave way to tears. Columbus vainly strove to quiet their fears ; and when, after many days passed without sight of the expected land, it was found that the needle varied from the north, despair almost drove them to mutiny and throw their commander overboard. Columbus, however, kept on with unfaltering faith ; and soon, to his delight, indications of the neighborhood of land appeared. Watching throughout the night himself in eager expectation, he beheld a dim moving light. The joyful cry of "Land ! " was raised ; and when

DISCOVERIES OF COLUMBUS.

day dawned (October 12th), a wooded island w^as seen in the distance, with wondering natives crowded on the shore.

At sunrise Columbus and his officers landed. His first act was to kneel down, and thank God with tears ; his second, to unfurl the royal banner and take possession of the

Xlctl PTION OF COLIMI I ■s 1 \ llIUINVND VND Is VLLLL V, ON UIS EETl FN country in the name of his sovereigns, receiving the homage of his men, and of the natives, who looked upon the Spaniards as gods come down to earth. The land thus discovered was San Salvador', or Guanahani (gioaJi-naJi-haJi'ne), one of the Baha'mas (see Map, p. 38).

Columbus next directed his course to the south, and discovered Cuba, Hispanio'la — now called Hayti (hate) — and

HIS LATER VOYAGES. 13

other islands. On Hispaniola he left some of his men as a colon}^ ; and setting out on his return with several of the natives and specimen products of the New World, after riding out a terrible storm, he reached Palos in safety. Roaring cannon and pealing bells heralded his progress to the court of Ferdinand and Isabella, where he was hailed as the great discoverer of his age.

His Subsequent Voyages. — Columbus made a second voyage in 1493, taking out a number of adventurers as settlers ; in the course of this expedition, Jamaica and Porto Rico (re'ko) were visited. A third voyage (1498) resulted in the discovery of Trinidad and the mainland of South America. The object of his fourth voyage (1502) was to find a passage to India by keeping on to the west. He failed of course in this, but explored the coast of Central America for many miles. Obliged to beach his weather-beaten vessels on the coast of Jamaica, after many hardships he succeeded in making his way to Hispaniola, and thence to Spain, — only to find Queen Isabella dead, Ferdinand ungrateful, and to drag out his two remaining years in poverty and gloom.

To the very close of his life, Columbus had no idea that he had discovered a new continent, but supposed the lands he had reached to be outlying islands of India. In this belief, he called the natives Indians.

Administration of Columbus. — In his original commission Columbus had been appointed viceroy of all the lands he should discover, and in this capacity he ruled the colony planted under his auspices in Hispaniola. During his long absences, however, affairs were badly managed, and complaints were raised against his administration. The settlers became rebellious. The proud Spaniards whom he tried to force to honest labor could ill tolerate the orders of a foreigner of humble birth, whose high honors they envied. Their expectations of sudden riches were disappointed, and no less the king's, who had hoped to swell his revenues

14: DISCOVERIES OF COLUMBUS.

with the storied treasures of Cathay. Nor did the viceroy's enslavement of the natives, who rapidly wasted away under the cruel exactions of the Spaniards and were even exported to Spain for sale, please the gentle Isabella.

Accordingly, in 1406 Columbus found it necessary to return to Spain, to defend himself against the intrigues of his enemies. He succeeded in regaining the royal favor ; but on landing at Hispaniola after his third voyage, he found affairs worse than ever. Sickness prevailed ; famine was imminent ; disorder was everywhere. Hardly had he resumed the reins of government, when an agent of the crown appeared, who treated the great discoverer as a convicted criminal and sent him back in irons to Spain.

His authority was never restored. Though he was sent out, as we have seen, on a fourth voyage, it was with an inferior outfit and without his former powers. Even when merely seeking temporary safety from an approaching tempest in his own harbor at Hispaniola, he was peremptorily ordered to leave by the governor. It seems a righteous retribution that, in the hurricane which followed, fourteen ships just sailing from the island went to the bottom v/ith the enemies of Columbus and their ill-gotten gains, while the little fleet that had been driven from the harbor survived the storm.

Under the successors of Columbus the colony grew, while the natives, wholly unfit for the hard labor imposed on them by their taskmasters, perished by thousands, and in a few years became extinct. To supply their place, Africans were imported, and slavery became an established institution of the Spanish colonies.

Cuba was overrun, its natives were subdued, and various Spanish settlements made on the island, early in the sixteenth century.

Name of the New World. — In poetry the New World is often called Columbia, and certainly that should have been

NAME OF THE NEW WOELD. 15

its name. But the first detailed account of the newly-discovered lands was written by Amerigo Vespucci {aJi-yna-re'go ves-poot'she)^ a Florentine residing in Spain. In 1499 he followed the track of Columbus in a private expedition, and on a subsequent voyage, in the service of Portugal, coasted South America to its southern extremity. Plis letter attracted much attention ; and a German, republishing it in a geographical work in 1507, gave the whole continent the name of America from this Amerigo, whom he unjustly represented as its discoverer.

CONTEMPORARY EVENTS AND RULERS.

1492. — America discovered by Columbus. — Granada {gra-naW diX\ the last stronghold of the Moors in Spain, taken by Ferdinand and Isabella. The Jews expelled from Spain. Spain becomes a strong consolidated monarchy. John II. king of Portugal. France a powerful kingdom under Charles VIII. England advancing in prosperity under Henry VII. Alexander VI. (Borgia) elected pope. Last year of Lorenzo the Magtiificent in Florence. Ivan III. {e-vahn) the Great, czar of Muscovy (Russia). Copernicus, the discoverer of the true system of the universe, nineteen years old.

Chapter III

The West Indian Natives. — The natives whom Columbus found on the islands he visited, were of a different race from Europeans. They were erect, well-formed, and copper-colored. They had long black hair, but no beards ; wore gay feather head-dresses, but little or no clothing ; were fond of ornament — gentle, grateful, and friendly when well treated, fierce when provoked by wrong. The Red Men of the mainland farther north, with whom the subsequent explorers came in contact, were of the same race and general ap-

THE MOUND-BUILDEKS.

pearance, but warlike and ferocious, crafty and treacherous, and more barbarous than the islanders in their habits and modes of life.

Origin of the Natives. — Whence, how, and when America was first peopled, is unknown. But whether it was first reached from the Atlantic coast of Europe, by vessels driven over by stress of weather, — or from the Pacific shores of Asia, by wanderers making their way from island to island, —or by crossing Behring Strait, through which a current sets toward the American shore, and which in severe seasons is frozen over, — one thing is certain, that it was settled at a very remote date.

The Mound-builders. — Remains found in different parts of America show that, many hundred years ago, parts of the continent were thickly inhabited by a people possessed of

great mechanical and architectural skill, such as the later Indians have never displayed.

Among these remains may be mentioned vases of elegant pattern, isinglass mirrors, pipe-bowls with quaint carvings, wellburned bricks laid in fireplaces and chimneys, and a great variety of copper ornaments and implements. These have been found at various depths beneath the surface ; in some cases, under trees that have been growing for centuries.

Mound at Maiuetta, Ohio.

RELICS OF THE MOUND-BUILDEES.

E E LI C S OF THE

Mound-build ers.

1, 2, 3, 4, stone pipe-bowls ; 5, earthen pipe; 6, earthen vase; 7, water-cooler ; 8, 9, mortar and pestle ; 10, specimen of pottery; 11, copper knife; 12, stone bill, or mace ; 13, two awls of bone ; 14, stone hatchet; 15, drill ; 16, copper spear-head; 17, stone arrow-head; 18, hammer-head; 19, copper wrist-bands ; 20, instrument for making twine.

The most remarkable relics, however, are the mounds and earthworks which are scattered through parts of the United States, Mexico, and Central America, to the number of many tliousand, and which have procured for the early race with whom they originated the name of Mound-builders.

These works seem to have been thrown up for purposes of defence, observation, or worship, — or else served as burial-places and g-arden-beds. Some of the mounds are nearly a hundred feet high ; many of the embankments extend for miles ; and, as there were no beasts of burden to

18 THE MOUND-BUI LDEKS.

draw the earth, multitudes must have engaged in their construction. To support the workmen while thus laboring, other multitudes must have tilled the soil. From these mounds many of the relics just mentioned have been taken ; also, half-burned wood (perhaps the remains of altar-fires), skeletons nearly turned to dust, and skulls quite different from those of the Indians.

Animal-Mounds. — Some of the earthworks in Wisconsin, Iowa, and Ohio, are especially curious, representing by their shape different animals in relief, — men with outstretched arms, birds with wings extended, fish, and various mathematical figures. In one, the form of an elephant can be distinctly traced ; in another, that of an alligator. A third, over a thousand feet long, represents a serpent, — the body extended in graceful curves, the tail coiled, and the open jaws enclosing an oval mound of regular outline.

Ruins. — No less interesting are the ruins of ancient P3^ramids and temples in Mexico and Central America, and of massive stone fortresses in New Mexico and elsewhere. The sites selected for defence were generally well chosen ; and some of the fortifications were provided with moats, parallel walls, and covered ways, which display great skill in engineering. There is no evidence of the use of iron by the mound-builders, but they turned copper to good account, and drew largely, as do we, on the rich deposits of this metal near Lake Superior. They also carried on the manufacture of salt in Illinois.

How these mound-builders looked, unless they resembled their own representations of the human face (see Figure 1, p. 17) we do not know ; for long before white men first reached America, they had disappeared. The Indians, who succeeded them, but possessed neither their civilization nor persevering industry, had no traditions that threw light upon the history of this ancient race.

The American Indians. — That part of America embraced

THE AMEKICAN INDIANS. 19

within the present limits of the United States, when first known to Europeans, was thinly inhabited by different Indian tribes. Those living east of the Mississippi and south of the St. Lawrence (perhaps 200,000 in number) have been arranged, according to their languages, in eight families, of which the Algon'quin and Huron-Iroquois [Ir-o-kwoy') were the most important. The Algonquin s covered the largest territory (see Map, p. 38) ; to this family belonged the Atlantic tribes, as far south as Cape Fear. The Huron-Iroquois, distinguished for intelligence and courage, occupied most of the present state of New York, and extended beyond Lakes Erie and Ontario. The southern Atlantic and Gulf tribes constituted the Mobilian family ; while the Cherokees inhabited the mountain fastnesses of what is now Tennessee and Carolina.

Characteristics. — The general characteristics of the natives were the same. They were mostly grave and taciturn, hospitable, generous, brave, and possessed of wonderful self-control in both bearing pain and repressing all show of joy or sorrow. On the other hand, they were often deceitful and treacherous, — always cunning and suspicious, cruel, improvident, and indisposed to labor except in war and the chase. They never forgot either a kindness or an injury. They Avere given to few words, but their language was full of eloquence. Their sight and hearing were remarkably acute. Nothing escaped their observation, and they were singularly sagacious in drawing conclusions from signs which Europeans would not notice at all. For the hunting-grounds and graves of their ancestors they cherished a patriotic attachment.

Dress. — In summer, and in the more southerly regions, the dress of the Red Men was scanty. In winter, till the pale-faces supplied them with blankets, they wore robes of skins cured by drying and smoking, and on their feet moccasins of deer-skin. The v/omen let their long, coarse, black

20 THE AMERICAN INDIANS.

hair float over their shoulders ; the warriors plucked out their thin beards, if any appeared, and generally removed their hair with the exception of the scalp-lock on the crown. Porcupine-quills, feathers, and beads made of clam-shells, served them as ornaments. They were in the habit of painting their bodies, using different colors and devices to express grief or exultation, war or peace ; also, of tattooing on the chest the totem,^ or figure of some animal or bird — a bear, deer, beaver, turtle, eagle, crane, etc. — the great original of which was thought to be the special guardian of their clan.

Food, etc. — Having neither iron implements nor domestic animals to help them, the Indians cultivated the soil but little. They raised tobac30 to smoke (not to chew), and also produced small crops of maize, beans, and squashes. But their principal food consisted of animals and birds taken in hunting, and fish which they speared, or caught with bone hooks and rude nets. When food was plenty, they ate like gluttons, but took no care to provide for the future, and therefore often suffered from hunger.

The Indians were extremely agile ; it was not uncommon for their runners to go seventy-five miles in a single day. Constant exercise in the open air kept them for the most part healthy. Pestilences, however, w^ould sometimes sweep through the land, and these, w^th frequent wars, kept their ranks thinned. The doctor, or " medicine-man," was believed to be endowed with supernatural knowledge. Besides his herbs, he used magical rites to drive out the evil spirits which were supposed to possess the sick.

Indian Life. — The Indian home was a wigwam, or cabin made by covering poles with skins or bark. A low openingwas left for an entrance, and the ground served for seat, bed, and table. Many wigwams, and sometimes more permanent tenements, were grouped together in villages. But the warrior's life was essentially a roving one. Small hunting or war parties, leaving their women and children, would

INDIAN LIFE.

go out for weeks together. During such expeditions they were without shelter — a fire at night, to keep off wild beasts, being their sole protection.

The original weapons of the natives were the bow and arrow, the spear, war-club, and stone hatchet, or tomahawh.

These, though rudely made, they used with great efficiency.

Their ingenuity was perhaps best shown in the construction of light and graceful birch-bark canoes, in which with skillful strokes of the paddle they shot dangerous rapids in safety.

Labor was looked on as beneath a warrior, and fell to the lot of his poor w4fe, or squaw. She not only cooked

22 THE A^IERICAN INDIANS.

and took care of her little 2^apoose, but carried the baggage on a march, erected the wigwam, gathered the wood, tilled the soil, and acted as drudge in general. Trade there was little or none. Wampum, consisting of beads made from clam-shells, strung in chains or fastened together in belts, served as money, or passed from hand to hand as a token of alliance or friendship.

Government. — Every tribe had its sa'chem, or chief, who owed his position sometimes to descent, sometimes to superior bravery or cunning. In war he was the leader ; and at the council-fire, where the braves gathered to consider important questions, after smoking a long time in silence, he was the first to deliver his opinion. Ordinarily, however, he exercised little authority, for there were no law^s, and whoever suffered a wrono- was allowed to avenire it.

Children of both sexes were taught to weave mats, string wampum, and make bows and arrows. The boys were early trained to endure fatigue and hunger, and to perform feats requiring dexterity and courage. They were instructed by their elders in the traditions of their people, and as they approached manhood were in some tribes prepared for an honorable career by long fasts and other rigorous ordeals.

War was the Indian's favorite pursuit. It was carried on by small parties and personal encounters ; the discipline which enables large bodies to act together was wanting. On the war-path, the chief cautiously led the way, following the trail of his enemies with unerring accuracy. The object was to surprise the foe, and to take as many scalps as i:)ossible without losing any in return.

A captive was sometimes adopted into the tribe of the victors, but more frequently put to death with exquisite tortures, Avhich, to maintain his reputation, he had to bear without a £>:roan. While his flesh was roastino; in the flames, he would chant his war-song, or boast of his exploits, or denounce his persecutors as w^omen who knew not how to

LANGUAGES AND PICTURE- WEITING.

torture a chief, or tell how he had made their bravest warriors quail at the stake. Happy the sufferer, if at length the tomahawk of some enemy provoked beyond endurance cheated the flames of their prey.

The Indian Languages contained comparatively few words, for they lacked the terms of art, science, and the trades, as well as names for abstract ideas. As spoken, they were soft and musical. None of them were written, for letters were unknown. Facts, however, were recorded with some precision, by pictures and symbols. These were painted on birch-bark or chiselled on rocks. The following copy of a bark letter will give an idea of Indian picture-writing.

Indian Pictfke-wkiting.

This letter was fixed on a pole by a party of Sioux (soo)^ who, under the direction of a United States officer, had gone out to make a treaty with some Chippewa hunters, but were disappointed in finding them. The scroll was intended to let the Chippewas know that the Sioux had been searching for them, and was at once understood by the Chippewas, who came to the spot and read it shortly afterward.

1 represents the United States flag ; 2, the cantonment of the troops 3, the officer under whose auspices the expedition was made ; 4, the leading Sioux chief; 5, the second chief, whose totem was the black dog, in command of fourteen lodges (G) ; '7, a third chief, with thirteen lodges, and a bale of goods (8) devoted to the object of the peace ; 9, a fourth chief, with thirteen lodges (10).

THE AMERICAN INDIANS.

Religion. — The Indians had no idols. They worshipped as God the mighty 3IanUoii, the ruler of all things. Many believed also in evil spirits, and reverenced the sun, moon, stars, thunder, fire, water, etc., as inferior divinities.