Europe and other continents

Front matter

COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT

EUROPE AND OTHER CONTINENTS

TARR AND MCMURRY GEOGRAPHIES

Preface

Eeview of General Geography. — Following our plan of providing frequent -reviews of salient points, we have in this book prefaced sections devoted to the continents with a few chapters on general geography. Especially important subjects, such as winds, ocean currents, climate, etc., which served as topics in the preceding book, are again taken up. But the matter is not merely repeated, for these discussions assume some knowledge of the subject treated and carry the inquiry further than before. By this plan a review is provided, and, at the same time, a more advanced and wider knowledge is obtained.

Eeview of North America. — A common defect in the teaching of geography is that the facts previously learned about the United States fade from the pupil's memory while other countries are being studied. Yet the relation between North America and the other continents is so marked that this defect is unnecessary. For example, most of the industries and important principles of physiography and climate have received the attention of a child when he has completed a general study of the United States. Foreign lands illustrate the same great ideas under slightly different conditions. This means that the comprehension of foreign countries may best be gained by our children if they use their previous knowledge of the United States as a basis of comparison. If, then, this old related knowledge is carefully called to mind when the physiography, climate, and industries of a foreign land are approached, our pupils will not only secure a fuller appreciation of that region, but will also keep alive their present knowledge of the United States by bringing it into use.

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The above has been a controlling idea in writing this volume. Accordingly in approaching the physiography of South America (p. 96), the physiography and climate of Europe (pp. 150-163), grazing in Argentina (p. 119), mining in Great Britain (p. 118), etc., we have reproduced the corresponding situation in our own country at some length. Besides this, we have included in the text scores of brief comparisons with the United States. By this means incidental reviews are continually provided, which are especially attractive to both teachers and pupils because they contain more of motive than the ordinary " review for review's sake."

To supplement this kind of review several sets of questions, which call for still different comparisons with the United States, are included in the book, one series being found at the close of the treatment of each continent. These are likewise rich in motive, inasmuch as they recall leading facts in regard to the United States from varying points of view. It should be kept in mind also that each set at the same time reviews another continent from a new point of view.

Many of the facts in regard to the United States which these questions call for are not presented in the text treating of the various continents, and answers for a few of them are not indicated in the maps. Also pupils may have forgotten other important information about the United States. For these reasons Section XXIV, covering thirty-two pages, is an organized review of Xorth America alone. It includes the principal facts about our continent which every pupil should know on completing the grades. In several important respects it is different from that presented at the close of our Second Book, and possesses, therefore, an element of freshness.

The title of the last section, " The United States in Comparison with Other Countries," indicates provision for still further review. It has seemed to the authors an anti-climax to close several years' study of geography with the Islands of

PREFACE vii

the Pacific, lands farthest away and of least interest to us. On the other hand, it has been deemed highly important that, after all the countries of the world have been treated, the closing chapter should summarize the situation and show the rank of our own land and its relation to others. This secures a final reconsideration of the principal facts in our geography, while at the same time it brings them into proper relation and perspective.

On the whole, we are of the opinion that reviews should occupy a large part of the time of instruction ; and by the plan followed we hope that pupils will have a fairly complete knowledge of the United States and the rest of the world in their possession, not only when they finish the grades, but in years to follow.

Fulness of Treatment. — The plan of this series of geographies provides for a fulness of treatment of foreign countries corresponding to that of the United States in the Second Book. Europe naturally receives most attention, the British Isles occupying thirty-five pages and Germany thirtyfour. Our plan may be understood by reference to the British Isles. In that section we state the leading points of history, physiography, and climate, and point out their relation to the marvellous natural development. The relation of the industries and cities to one another is brought out, as well as reasons for the supremacy of the British on the sea, their many colonies, and their vast foreign trade. Such extensive treatment frees the earnest teacher from the necessity of overtaxing strength in ransacking libraries in search of sufficient material to produce reasonably vivid, correct, and stimulating pictures in the minds of pupils.

Suggestions and References. — At the same time this volume invites both teacher and pupil to go beyond the text. The book is intended for the last two years of the grammar school, and probably some children will find the text alone as

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much as they can master. But for others some of the suggestions and references will no doubt prove interesting and lead to research. Thus the course of study is made flexible by offering more than the average amount of work for those who are capable of doing more. Also, by means of the references, specific sources are indicated to which the instructor may go for further knowledge.

Physiographic Basis and Causal Sequence. — The same close sequence sought after in the preceding work has been attempted here. Physiography is considered the basis for the causal series of facts, and we have therefore introduced the subject freely ; but not too freely, provided each physical fact is shown really to function in man's relation to the earth. We have endeavored to provide that the effects of carefully selected facts about glacial action, altitude, winds, ocean currents, etc., may be traced to individual countries in such a manner that pupils will plainly see the connection. Physiography that is clearly shown to have a real bearing upon man greatly enriches the subject of geography; it is the unused physical geography in the grades that is a stumbling block, and this we have tried to avoid.

Types. — The study of the United States has, as suggested above, furnished occasion for detailed treatment of most kinds of geographic topics. Some important features and occupations, however, are not found in the United States, and to these we have endeavored to give the same careful consideration as was given to other representative topics in the Second Book. Por instance, so far as space permits, the Brazilian forest is presented as a type of tropical forests on page 113. Other illustrations may be found in the treatment of the rubber industry on page 115 ; the linen industry on page 191 ; and the silk industry on page 229. The object is to continue to acquaint the learner properly with the basal ^units of geography.

PREFACE ix

Political and Belief Maps. — We again point to our political maps, as clear, artistic, and unburdened with unnecessary details. There is not a city which an American child needs to remember that is not to be found on these maps ; why then make them larger and less distinct by adding other names ?

The main features of the relief of the country are presented in the political maps so that they may be before the eye when these maps are studied. But for the study of the relief itself we have had prepared a set of continent models. Half tones of these appear in their proper places in the book and give pictures of the relief of the continents, which are accurate in general features and in detail.

Other Illustrations. — Many black maps are used, some to show the location of cities and the distribution of products, and some to illustrate the climatic sections. A series of maps gives a graphic view of the density of population of the continents ; and each continent has its railways represented either by special maps (Figs. 119, 394, and 395) or, where the roads are few in number, by lines inserted on the political maps. The colonies of some of the leading nations are also shown on black maps (Figs. 142 and 193) and the great commercial routes of the world are represented on a single map (Fig. 433). It is believed that this large number of maps, each devoted to a specific object, will be found of great value.

Besides the maps and diagrams there are many half tones of photographs selected to supplement the text. They are not introduced merely as pictures, but as a part of the fund of information offered. For this purpose the half tone is the best adapted. There is reason for confidence in the accuracy of such views.

Acknowledgments. — The political and many of the black maps were made by the Matthews-Northrup Co. of Buffalo ; the relief maps by E. E. Howell of Washington. The world

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maps showing the distribution of products (Section XXV) are in part based upon maps kindly furnished to us by the Philadelphia Commercial Museum, and a few of them are actual reproductions of the Museum maps. Our photographs have been selected from various sources ; but in this volume, as in those which precede it, the larger number have been purchased from William H. Rail of Philadelphia. Through the kindness of Commander Webster we have obtained permission to use the photographs reproduced in Figures 244, 285, 286, 287, and 290 ; and Figures 42, 48, 54, 55, 56, 62, 65, 67, 69, 72, 87, 88, 252, 268, 337, 342, 346, and 348 are borrowed from Ratzel's " History of Mankind." A number of European views were loaned by Dr. Heinrich Pies of Cornell University ; and the wash drawings were made by Mr. C. W. Furlong, also of Cornell.

■Again we are deeply indebted to Mr. Philip Emerson of the Cobbet School, Lynn, Massachusetts, for his suggestive criticism of the manuscript and for further aid in the preparation of the section on Australia. Valuable assistance in the preparation of statistical tables, books of reference, etc., has again been rendered by Mr. P. H. Whitbeck of Cornell University. While we have drawn upon many sources for the information upon which the text in this volume is based, the extensive use that has been made of Mill's " International Geography" and the "Statesman's Yearbook" — books that every geography teacher should have at hand — calls for special acknowledgment.

Section I. The Earth as a Planet ...... 1

Stars and Planets, 1. Ocean Basins and Continents, 3. Mountains and Volcanoes, 5.

Section II. Movements of the Earth and their Results . 8 Daily Motion, 8. Yearly Motion, 8. Results of the Earth's Revolution and Inclination of its Axis, 11. Boundaries of the Zones, 15.

Section III. Maps (Latitude and Longitude) .... 18

Latitude, 18. Longitude, 19. Longitude- and Time, 21. Maps of the World, 22.

Section IV. Wind and Rain Belts ...... 25

Winds. Cause of Winds, 25. The Wind Belts, 26. Rain. Causes for Rain, 28. Rain Belts, 31. Migration of the Rain Belts, 34. Monsoons, 34. Cyclonic Storms, 38.

Section V. Distribution of Temperature and a Study of Ocean Currents . . . . . . . . .41

Distribution of Temperature. Effect of Highlands, 41. Effect of Distance from Sea, 41. Effect of Prevailing Winds, 44. Ocean Currents. Cause of Ocean Currents, 45. The Pacific Currents, 46. Eddies of the Southern Oceans, 48. North Atlantic Currents, 48. Section VI. Plants and Animals ...... 52

Zones of Life, 52. Tropical Forest Belt, 52. Savannas, 55. The Desert, 57. Life in Temperate Zones, 59. Steppes and Arid Plains, 60. Prairies, 61. Forests of the Temperate Zone, 61. People of the Temperate Zone, 62. Life in the Frigid Zone, 63. Oceanic Life, 64. Causes for Distribution of Plants and Animals, 65. xi xii TABLE OF COX TENTS

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Section VII. The Human Race 71

Divisions of Mankind. Ethiopians, 71. American Indians, 72. Mongolians, 73. Caucasians, 74. Distribution of Races, 75. Development of Civilization. Need of Food, 78. Development of Agriculture, 79. Development of Grazing, 80. Development of Fishing, 82. Development in the Temperate Zone, 82. Shelter, 82. Sites for Houses, 84. Towns and Cities, 85. Clothing, 86. The Development of Language, 87. Inventions, 88. Development of the State, 89. Development of Religion, 91.

Section VIII 96

Introductory Sections. Physiography, 96. Climate, 100. Plant Life, 104. Animal Life, 105. The People, 107. Brazil. Physiography and Climate, 112. The Tropical Forest, 113. Products of the Forest, 115. Coffee Raising, 116. Other Industries in Brazil, 117. Cities, 117. Argentina. Physiography and Climate, 118. Cattle Raising, 119. Farming, 121. Manufacturing and Commerce, 122. Cities, 123. Uruguay and Paraguay. Uruguay, 123. Paraguay, 124. The Guianas and Venezuela. The Guianas, 125. Venezuela, 127. Tropical Andean Countries. Points of Resemblance, 129. Colombia, 132. Ecuador, 133. Peru, 136. Bolivia, 140. Chile. Physiography and Climate, 142. Mineral Wealth, 143. Agriculture, Manufacturing, and General Development, 144. Cities, 145. Islands near the Continent, 145.

Part III. Europe

Section IX. Physiography, Climate, and People . . . 149 Phrysiography. Highlands and Lowlands, 150. Coal Beds, 153. The Great Ice Sheet, 154. The Coast Line, 156. Climate. Influence of Latitude, 157. Resemblance to Western North America, 160. Influence of Cyclonic Storms, 161. Effect of Mountain Ranges, 162.

TABLE OF CONTENTS Xlii

Inland Seas, 163. People. Their Origin, 164. The Greeks, 164. The Romans, 165. Decline of the Roman Empire, 166. Later Development of 'European Nations, 167. Influence of the Discovery of America, 171.

Section X. The British Isles ....... 173

Inhabitants, 173. Position, Size, and Importance, 174. Physiography and Climate, 175. Kinds of Industries, 179. Agriculture, 180. Fishing, 182. Mining, 183. Reasons for Development of Manufacturing, 185. Woollen and Cotton Manufactures, 186. Iron and Steel Manufacturing, 188. Ireland, 189. Location of Principal Cities, 192. London, 194. Other English Cities, 197. Cities of Scotland, 198. Cities of Ireland, 199. Scenery-, 200. Fuller Reasons for the Greatness of the British Empire, 201. Government, 205.

Section XI. The Netherlands and Belgium . . . . 208 The Netherlands (Holland). Physiography, 208. People and Government, 209. Agriculture, 210. Reclaimed Land, 210. Manufacturing, 212. Commerce, 213. Colonies, 213. Cities, 215. Belgium. Phisiography, 216. People and Government, 216. Agriculture, 217. Mining and Manufacturing, 218. Commerce, 219. Cities, 219. Luxemburg, 220.

Section XII. France 222

People and Government, 222. Physiography and Climate, 224. Agriculture, 225. Minerals, 226. Manufacturing, 227. Wool and Cotton Manufactures, 228. Silk Manufacturing, 229. Other Manufactures, 230. Paris, 231. {Location, 231 ; Paris as an Art Centre, 231 ; Manufactures of Paris, 234; Commerce of Paris, 234.) Other Cities, 234. Commerce of France, 236. Colonies, 236.

Section XIII. Spain and Portugal 238

People and Government, 238. Physiography and Climate, 241. Agriculture and Grazing, 242. Mining, 244. Manufacturing, 245. Principal Cities of Spain, 245. Colonies of Spain, 248. Principal Cities and Colonies of Portugal, 249.

Section XIV. Norway, Sweden, and Denmark . . . 251

People, 251. Physiography and Climate, 252. Agricultural Districts, 253. Industries and Cities of Norway, xiv TABLE OF CONTENTS

254. Scenery on the Western Coast, 257. Industries and Cities of Sweden, 258. Industries and Cities of Denmark, 261. Colonies of Denmark, 262.

Section XV. Russia 264

Size and Position, 264. Physiography, 265. Climate, 266. Climatic Belts, 266. People and Government, 267. Lumbering, 269. Farming and Grazing, 269. Mineral Wealth, 270. Manufacturing, 271. Principal Cities and their Commerce. Moscow and Nijni Novgorod, 271. St. Petersburg, 273. Odessa, 274. Warsaw and Lodz, 275.

Section XVI. German Empire ....... 277

Extent and Position, 277. People and Government, 278. Defence, 279. Physiography, 281. Climate, 283. Forests, 284. Agriculture and Grazing, 285. Mining, 286. Manufacturing, 287. Germany's Rapid Advance, 289. Colonies and Emigrants, 291. Principal Cities and their Commerce. Berlin, 292. Interior Cities near Berlin, 294. Seaports, 296. Cities along the Rhine, 297.

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Section XXI. Asia 353

Size and Position, 353. Physiography, 354. Climate, 358. Plants and Animals, 359. People, 3(33. Turkish or Ottoman Empire, 365. (Conditions in the Empire, 366; The Hohj Land, 369; Mesopotamia, 372.) Arabia, 372. Persia, 374. Afghanistan, 376. Russia in Asia, 378. India, 381. {Physiography and Climate, 381; Farming, 382 ; Forest and Wild Animals, 384 ; Domestic Animals,

385 ; Mining and Manufacturing, 386 ; Famines and Plagues,

386 ; People, 387 ; Beligion, 387 ; Government, 388 ; Baluchistan and Burma, 390 ; Base of Himalayas, 390 ; Other Countries, 390 ; Principal Cities, 391.) Ceylon, 393. Indo-China and the Malay Peninsula, 393. (Siam, 394 ; French Indo-China, 395 ; Straits Settlements, 395.) Chinese Empire, 396. (Area and Population, 396 ; Climate, 397 ; People and Civilization, 398 ; Natural Resources, 402 ; Government, 403; Principal Cities, 404.) Korea, 405. Japan, 405. (Physiography and Climate, 406 ; People and Government, 407; Becent Advance, 408; Resources, 410; Principal Cities, 410.)