A treatise on human physiology ..

Front matter

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Preface

This volume is offered to the medical profession of the United States, as a text-book for students, and also as a means of communicating, in a condensed form, such new facts and ideas in physiology, as have marked the progress of the science within a recent period. Many of these topics are of great practical importance to the medical man, as influencing, in various ways, his views on pathology and therapeutics ; and they are all of interest for the physician who desires to keep pace with the annual advance of his profession, as indicating the present position and extent of one of the most progressive of the departments of medicine.

It has been the object of the author, more particularly, to present, at the same time with the conclusions which physiologists have been led to adopt on any particular subject, the experimental basis upon which those conclusions are founded ; and he has endeavored, so far as possible, to establish or corroborate them by original investigation, or by a repetition of the labors of others. This is more especially the case in that part of the book (Section I.) devoted to the function of Nutrition ; and as a general thing, throughout the work, any statement of experimental facts, not expressly referred to the authority of some other writer, is given by the author as the result of direct personal observation.

The illustrations for the work have been prepared with special reference to the subject-matter ; and it is hoped that they will be found of such a character as materially to assist the student in comprehending the most important and intricate parts of the subject. It is more particularly in the departments of the Nervous System and Embryonic Development that simple, clear, and faithful

Vlll PREFACE.

illustrations are indispensable for tlie proper understanding of the printed descriptions ; the latter being often necessarily somewhat intricate, and requiring absolutely the assistance of properly arranged figures and diagrams. Of the two hundred and fifty-four illustrations in the present volume, only eleven have been borrowed from other writers, to whom they will be found duly credited in the list of woodcuts.

Of the remaining illustrations, prepared expressly for the present work, the drawings of anatomical structures, crystals, and microscopic views generally, were all taken from nature. The diagrams were arranged, for purposes of convenience, in such a manner as to illustrate known anatomical or physiological appearances, in the most compact and intelligible form.

Physiological questions which are in an altogether unsettled state, as well as purely hypothetical topics, have been purposely avoided, as not coming within the plan of this work, nor as calculated to increase its usefulness.

New York, January 1, 1859.

Chapter I. Proximate Principles In General

Definition of Proximate Principles — Mode of their extraction — Manner in which they are associated with each other — Natural variation in their relative quantities — Three distinct classes of proximate principles . . 29-36

Chapter II. Proximate Principles Op The First Class

Inorganic Substances — Water — Chloride of Sodium — Chloride of Potassium — Phosphate of Lime — Carbonate of Lime — Carbonate of Soda — Phosphates of Magnesia, Soda, and Potass — Inorganic proximate principles not altered in the body — Their discharge — Nature of their function . . . 37-46

Chapter III. Proximate Principles Op The Second Class

Starch — Percentage of starch in different kinds of food — Varieties of this substance — Properties and reactions of starch — Its conversion into sugar — Sugar — Varieties of sugar — Physical and chemical properties — Proportion in different kinds of food — Fats — Varieties — Properties and reactions of fat — Its crystallization — Proportion in different kinds of food — Its condition in the body — Internal production of fat — Origin and destination of proximate principles of this class ....... 47-62

X CONTENTS.

CHAPTER lY.

PROXIMATE PRINCIPLES OF THE THIRD CLASS.

PAGE

General characters of organic substances — Their chemical constitution — Hygroscopic properties — Coagulation — Catalysis — Fermentation — Putrefaction — Fibrin — Albumen — Casein — Globuline — Pepsine — Pancreatine — Mucosine — Osteine — Cartilagine — Mnsculine — Hsematine — Melanine — Bill verdine — Urosacine — Origin and destruction of proximate principles of this class 63-72

Chapter V. Of Food

Importance of inorganic substances as ingredients of food — Of saccharine and starchy substances — Of fatty matters — Insufiiciency of these substances when used alone — Effects of an exclusive non-nitrogenous diet — Organic substances also insufficient by themselves — Experiments of Magendie on exclusive diet of gelatine or fibrin — Food requires to contain all classes of proximate principles — Composition of various kinds of food — Daily quantity of food required by man — Digestibility of food — Efifect of cooking . 73-82

CHAPTER Y I.

DIGESTION.

Nature of digestion — Digestive apparatus of fowl — Of ox — Of man — Mastication— Varieties of teeth — Effect of mastication — Saliva — Its composition — Daily quantity produced — Its action on starch — Effect of its suppression — Function of the saliva — Gastric Juice, and Stomach Digestion — Structure of gastric mucous membrane — Dr. Beaumont's experiments on St. Martin — Artificial gastric fistulse — Composition and properties of gastric juice — Its action on albuminoid substances — Peristaltic action of stomach — Time required for digestion — Daily quantity of gastric juice — Influences modifying its secretion — Intestinal Juices, and the Digestion of Sugar and Starch — Follicles of intestine — Properties of intestinal juice — Pancreatic Juice, and THE Digestion of Fat — Composition and properties of pancreatic juice — Its action on oily matters — Successive changes in intestinal digestion . 83-127

CHAPTER YII.

ABSORPTION.

Closed follicles and villi of small intestine — Peristaltic motion — Absorption by bloodvessels and lymphatics — Chyle — Lymph — Absorbent system — Lacteals and lymphatics — Absorption of fat — Its accumulation in the blood during digestion — Its final decomposition and disappearance ; . 128-140

CONTENTS. XI

CHAPTER VIII.

THE BILE.

PAGE

Physical properties of the bile — Its compositiou — Biliverdine — Cholesterin — Biliary salts — Their mode of extraction — Crystallization — Glyko-cholate of soda — Tauro-cholate of soda — Biliary salts in diiferent species of animals and in man — Tests for bile — Variations and functions of bile — Daily quantity— Time of its discharge into intestine — Its disappearance from the alimentary canal — Its reabsorption — Its ultimate decomposition . . 141-164

CHAPTER IX.

FORMATION OF SUGAR IN THE LIVER.

Existence of sugar in li^rer of all animals — Its percentage — Internal origin of liver-sugar — Its production after death — Glycogenic matter of the liver — Its properties and composition — Absorption of liver-sugar by hepatic veins — Its accumulation in the blood during digestion — Its final decomposition and disappearance . . . . . . . . 165-172

CHAPTER X.

THE SPLEEN.

Capsule of Spleen — Variations in size of the organ — Its internal structure — Malpighian bodies of the spleen — Action of spleen on the blood — Effect of its extirpation ........ 173-177

CHAPTER XI.

THE BLOOD.

Red Globules of the blood — Their microscopic characters — Structure and composition— Variations in size in different animals — White Globules of the blood — Independence of the two kinds of blood-globules — Plasma — Its composition— Fibi'in — Albumen — Fatty matters — Saline ingredients — Extractive matters — Coagulation of the Blood — Separation of clot and serum — Influences hastening or retarding coagulation — Coagulation not a commencement of organization — Formation of buflfy coat — Entire quantity of blood in body

178-196

CHAPTER XII.

RESPIRATION.

Respiratory apparatus of aquatic and air-breathing animals — Structure of lungs in human subject — Respiratory movements of chest — Of glottis — Changes in the air during respiration — Changes in the blood — Proportions of oxygen and carbonic acid, in venous and arterial blood-r— Solution of gases by the blood-globules — Origin of carbonic acid in the blood — Its mode of production — Quantity of carbonic acid exhaled from the body — Variations according to age, sex, temperature, &c. — Respiration by the skin . 197-217

XU CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XIII.

ANIMAL HEAT.

PAGE Standard temperature of animals — How maintained — Production of heat by- Vegetables — Mode of generation of animal heat — Theory of combustion — Objections to this theory — No oxidation in vegetables during production of heat — Quantities of oxygen and carbonic acid in animals do not correspond with each other — Production of animal heat a local process — Depends on the chemical phenomena of nutrition ..... 218-228

CHAPTER XIY.

THE CIRCULATIOx^.

Circulatory apparatus of fish — Of reptiles — Of mammalians — Course of blood through the heart — Action of valves — Sounds of heart — Movements — Impulse— Successive pulsations — Arterial system — Movement of blood through the arteries — Arterial pulse — Rapidity of arterial circulation — The veins — Causes of movement of blood in the veins — Rapidity of venous current — Capillary circulation — Phenomena and causes of cap>illary circulation — Rapidity of entire circulation — Local variations in different parts . 229-264

CHAPTER XV.

SECRETION.

Nature of secretion — Variations in activity — Mucus — Sebaceous matter — Perspiration— Tears — Milk — Secretion of bile — Anatomical peculiarities . 265-281

CHAPTER XYI.

EXCRETION.

Nature of excretion — Excrementitious substances — Effect of their retention — Urea — Its source — Conversion into carbonate of ammonia — Daily quantity of urea — Creatine — Creatinine— Urate of soda — Urates of potass and ammonia — General characters of the urine — Its composition — Variations — Accidental ingredients of the urine — Acid and alkaline fermentktions — Final decomposition of the urine ..... 282-304

CONTENTS. Xlll

Chapter I. General Character And Functions Of The Nervous System

PAGE

Nature of the function performed by nervous system — Two kinds of nervous tissue — Fibres of white substance — Their minute structure — Division and inosculation of nerves — Gray substance — Nervous system of radiata — Of mollusca — Of articulata — Of mammalia and human subject — Structure of encepbalon — Connections of its different parts .... 305-327

Chapter II. Of Nervous Irritability, And Its Mode Op Action

Irritability of muscles — How esliibited — Influences wliich exbaust and destroy it — Nervous irritability — How exhibited — Continues after death — Exhausted by repeated excitement — Influence of direct and inverse electrical currents — Nervous irritability distinct from muscular irritability — Nature of the nervous force — Its resemblance to electricity — Difi'erences between the two

328-339

Chapter III. The Spinal Cord

Distinct seat of sensation and motion in nervous system — Sensibility and excitability — Distinct seat of sensibility and excitability in spinal cord — Crossed action of spinal cord — Independent and associated action of motor and sensitive filaments — Reflex action of spinal cord — How manifested during disease — Influence in health on sphincters, voluntary muscles, urinary bladder, &c. . . . . . . . . 340-356

CHAPTER lY.

THE BRAIN.

Seat of sensibility and excitability in difi'erent parts of the encephalon — Olfactory ganglia — Optic thalami — Corpora striata — Hemispheres — Remarkable cases of injury of hemispheres — Efi'ect of their removal — Imperfect development in idiots — Aztec children — Theory of phrenology — Cerebellum — Efi"ect of its injury or removal — Comparative development in different classes — Tubercula quadrigemina — Tuber annulare — Medulla oblongata — Three kinds of reflex action in nervous system ..... 357-384 xiv CONTENTS.

CHAPTER Y.

THE CRANIAL NERVES.

PAGE

Olfactory nerves — Optic nerves — Auditory nerves — Classification of cranial nerves — Motor Nerves of the Head — Motor ocull communis — Patheticus — Motor externtis — Small root of fifth pair— Facial nerve — Sublingual nerve — Spinal accessory — Sensitive Nerves of the Head — Fifth pair — Its sensibility— Effect of division — Influence on the organ of sight — Glosso-pharyngeal nerve — Pneumogastric — Its distribution — Influence on pharynx and oesophagus — On larynx — On lungs — On stomach and digestion . 385-413

CHAPTER YI.

SYSTEM OF THE GREAT SYMPATHETIC.

Ganglia of the great sympathetic — Distribution of its nerves — Sensibility and excitability of sympathetic — Sluggish action of this nerve — Influence over organs of special sense — Elevation of temperature after division of sympathetic— Contraction of pupil following the same operation — Reflex actions taking place through the great sympathetic .... 414-425

Chapter I. On The Nature Of Reproduction, And The Origin Of Plants And

ANIMALS.

Nature and objects of the function of reproduction — Mode of its accomplishment— By generation from parents — Spontaneous generation — Mistaken instances of this mode of generation — Production of infusoria— Conditions of their development — Schultze's experiment on generation of infusoria — Production of animal and vegetable parasites— Encysted entozoa — Trichina spiralis — Tsnia — Cysticercus— Production of taenia from cysticercus — Of cysticercus from eggs of taenia — Plants and animals always produced by generation from parents ....... 427-441

Chapter II. On Sexual Generation, And The Mode Of Its Accomplishment

Sexual apparatus of plants— Fecundation of the germ — Its development into a new plant — Sexual apparatus of animals — Ovaries and testicles — Unisexual and bisexual species — Distinctive characters of the two sexes 442-445

CONTENTS. XV