Sugar Beet Seed: A Work for Farmers, Seedsmen and Chemists, Containing Historical, Botanical and ...

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CHAPTER I. Pases 1 to 6

Historical Considerations and Origrin of European Varieties of Beets— Concluding Remarks.

CHAPTER n Pages 7 to 25

Botanical Considerations Respecting Sugar-Beet Seed- Historical Facts Relating to the Fertilization of Plants- Description of the Flower— Fertilization — Examination of Beet Seed— Enlarged Microscopical Section of the Entire Seed— Maturity— Physiological Functions of the Emtryo and Albumen.

CHAPTER III ....Pages 26 to 43

Requirements of Sugar- Beet Seed— Preliminary Remarks —Advantage of One Variety of Beets— Advantage of E«xly Selection— Annual Beets.

CHAPTER IV , Pages 44 to 52 Races, Types and Varieties of Sugar Beets— Preliminary

Remarks — Technical Considerations.

CHAPTER V Pages 52 to 121

Selection of Beets with a View to Seed Production.

Part I. — Preliminary Observations. Legras's Physical Selection of Mothers, with Discussion as to Advantage of Small Beets — Exterior Signs as Indication of Quality. Selection by Appearance of Leaves.

Part II. Chemical Selection — History of Chemical Selection— 1st. Density of the Entire Root; 2d, Density of a Piece of Beet; 3d, Density of the Juice of the Beet; 4th, Estimation of the Juice by Chemical Methods; 5th, Estimation of the Sugar Beet by Means of a Polariscope. (a), Alcohol Method; (b). Hot Water Method; (c). Cold Water Methods, Pellet and Lamot Rasp; (c) 2, Keil and Dolle Rasp with Subsequent Weighing of Pulps; 3, Without Weighing with Special

' Samples as Adopted by M. Legras; 4, Sach's Direct Method — General Remarks on Laboratory Requisites for -Selection of Mothers by Cold- Water Method — German Beet- Seed-Selecting Laboratory— Polariscope for Mother Selection.

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS. V

CHAPTER VI Pages 122 to 162

Agricultural Soils for Beet-Seed Production — Fertilizers for Elite Seed and Mothers — Sowing of Seed for Mothers —Preparing the Soil, Planting of Mothers and Care During Development — Relation Between Soils and Fertilizers — Harvesting — Silos for Mothers — Chemical Changes During Second Year's Growth.

Home-Grown Beet — American Experiments in Beet-Seed Production — Utah Beet- Seed Production — Saxon Methods for Field Testing of Beet Seed.

CHAPTER XII Pages 237 to 246

Beet- Seed Production in France — Conditions of Beet Seed Purchase in Different Countries — Old Seed Utilization.

APPENDIX Pages 247to264

Notes, Names and Addresses of the Leading French, German, Austrian and Russian Sugar- Beet-Seed Producers. List of Illustrations. Index.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

FTG. PAGE

1. Appearance of seed and leaves on stalk . . 8

2. Outward appearance of three-seed cluster . . 8

3. Perspective view of flower from top ... 9

4. Section of flower showing embryo and stigma . 10

5. Plan or diagram of flower 10

6. Pollen 10

7. Section of pollen 10

8. Flowers at various stages of maturity ... 11

9. Stamens (detail of anthers) 11

10. Section of flower through pistil 12

11. Section of nucleus 12

12. Seed development 12

13. Enlarged microscopical section of beet seed . . 13

14. Section of pericarp of seed 14

15. Seed taken from hard outer covering ... 14

16. Section of seed 15

17. Appearance of testa magnifled 15

IS. Section M. N 16

10. Starch cell 16

20. Seed with descending root 19

21. Tip end of root showing plant cells .... 19

22. Legras beet with stalks and seed 20

27. Matured seed with dried petals on stalk ... 22

24. Typical I^egras sugar beet 55

25. \ [ 64

26. > Shape of beets geometrically shown . . . -J 65

27. ) ( 66

Shape of beets 67

Slassy's method of taking sample .... 79

28. Sampling 79

29. Diagram of Violette's theory 79

vi

LIST or ILLUSTRATIONS. Vll

PIG. PAGE

30. Heating flask revolvingr machine 81

31. Pipette stand 82

32. Diagram of theory Pellet and Lamont rasp . . 87

33. Pellet and Lamont beet rasp 88

34. Detail of rasp point 92

35. Wide neck flask 92

36. Plan of beet selecting laboratory 95

37. Vertical sampler 97

38. Hanriot crusher for beet sample 100

39. Filtering table _ 101

40. Complete apparatus 106

41. Detail of pipette 107

42. Interior view Braune beet selecting laboratory . 114

43. Continuous tube for polariscope .... 118

44. Polariscope with continuous tube .... 120

45. Plan of field, showing position of mothers . 133

46. Mother wfth top and end removed . , . 136

47. Sickle cutting of stalks with seed at Besny . . 139

48. Stacking bundles of stalks with seed at Besny 141

49. Construction off silo for beets selected for seed . 148

50. Maercker sampler 168

51. Top view Maercker sampler . . . . . 168

52. Divider paper 169

53. Dreuer miarker 176

54. Arrangement of seed 178

55. Germinator 180

56-59. Methods of planting 194

60-61. Growth of planted seed 203

62-63. Two germs on same seed sprouted different days 205

64-66. Growth of seed leaves 206

67. Leaves with adhering skin 218

68. Final appearance of root 218

69. Root formed from leaf with skin . . . .219

SUGAR BEET SEED.

CHAPTER I. Historical Consideration and Origin of European

Varieties of Beets.

The name Beta has a Celtic origin, and is shown to have existed several centuries before Christ. It was then evidently a sort of mangold. Just whether it comes from a wild variety, existing in Southern Europe, and to which is given the name Beta Maritimay no one can decide. A fact of importance is, as pointed out by Schindlcr, that the flower of the existing sugar beet has many points in common with its early ancestor whose descendants are in existence to-day.* The pollen grains are, however, smaller, and the wild beet hasmanymore lateral roots than the ameliorated types. French writers claim that the beet crossed the Alps from Italy. Oliver Serres mentions beets as early as 1590.

Beets were planted everywhere in Europe after the appearance of Marggraf's pamphlet in 1747. The white and rose varieties were then mentioned. The most important of all these experiments were those

*It is interesting to compare the early or wild beet with existinsr Improved varieties :

Potassa

Soda

Lime • • ,

Magnesia

Chlorine

Sulphnrlc acid

Phosphoric acid.

Silicic acid

Wild Beet.

Existing Sugar

(Wray)

Beet.

30.1

35.3

34.2

7.0

3.1

7.0

3.2

4.6

18.5

3.8

3.8

2.2

3.5

9.3

3.0

7.0

2 8UGAK BEET SEED.

of Vilmorin in 1775, in Russia during i8ck), and subsequently. Experiments under Conrad Adam were carried on in Vienna in 1799. F. C. Archard, in 1786, at his farm, experimented with not less than twentytwo varieties of beets; and, as a result of these observations, his book on the manufacture of beet sugar was issued. Other authorities declare that it was brought to Germany from Holland. In Austria it was certainly known during the last century. To follow the sugar beet through the various stages of its history is almost an impossibility; but it was not until .the i8th century that a standard name was applied to this root; its use at that period was almost entirely for feeding purposes.

Beet seed sold in 1837 for 25 to 75 cents per pound. The earlv Vilmorin selection in France assumed a serious aspect in 1830; a few years after this, Ziemann of Quedlinburg, Saxony, followed the example of the French. The Vilmorin method, based upon apparent sugar percentages of pieces of beet in saline solutions, was improved upon by the use of the polariscope for exact sugar determinations. However, the real impetus given to the whole question of amelioration of the saccharine quality of sugar beets was largely due to the Prussian fiscal laws. In Germany for many years they did not hesitate to declare that the Vilmorin seed was the best, and Professor Maercker placed it beyond all others. This is made evident, for even as late as 1877 the Vilmorin Original sold for about 35 cents per pound while the Quedlinburg was worth about 6J cents.* The Klein-Wanzleben, however, stood next

♦AccordJng t.o the •♦I")eut«sc]>e Znckerindustiie," the prices of beet seed on the Qerman market in 1877 were :

Vilmorin Oriprinal, 50 kps 140 marks

Vilmorin Amelioree, 60 kps 28-36 markn

Klein-Wanzleben, 50 kps 90 marks

Imperial Knaner 40-42 marks

Qnedllnbnrff Orijiinal 21-27 mnrUs

Commercial 18-20 marks

EUROPEAN VAUIETIES OF BEET8. o to the Vilmorin, but that variety brought freely only 22 cents per pound.

However, beets of those days were so diflfercnt from the kind now used for sugar-making that they need no more than a passing notice. Knauer, with some authority, maintains that all existing varieties of sugar beets have five important starting points: ist, Belgian; 2d, Quedlinburg; 3d, Silesian; 4th, Siberian, and 5th, the Imperial beet. Hundreds of varieties differ, not only in shape, but in the size and form of their leaves, which, also, are so many characteristics, to which must be added sub-varieties with varied colored skins, necks, etc. At the present time those who have centred their efforts on one variety, like M. Legras, have created a type that would be recognized anywhere; also the German, Klein-Wanzleben, which has undergone certain changes, but ^till retains its original characteristics. The type was created by the old firm Rabbethge and Giesecke in 1859. Vilmorin, the well-known French seed producer, created the White Silesian and the Ameliorated, as w^ell as the green and rose neck varieties. The Desprez beets are known as white or rose, with hard skins, w^hite or rose intermediate skins, and the green neck, soft skins, with several early maturing varieties; Simon-Legrand has the white rose, white conical neck, all of w^hich are the so-called ameliorated types of the German seed growers. The most important, besides the ones mentioned in the foregoing, are the Knauer, Old Imperial, Rose and White Ameliorated Imperial and Electoral. The Dippe Brothers have produced a type based upon the Klein- Wanzleben, Imperial Ameliorated, and the Most Rich. The Austrian beet of Jules-Robert is much liked : the varieties are few.

It is not necessary to discuss the claims of each seed grower^ for the practical results do not agree with their assertions.'" In Europe great changes have occurred in types of beets used. From 1850 to 1859 the white skin varieties were the most popular; from i860 to 1874 the rose necks and skins were in vogue. There • were several varieties of these, but for some unknown reason the German sugar manufacturers refused them. The farmers then declined to continue planting them. They were, however, said to possess great maturing qualities; the white varieties have superseded all others. And, strange as it may seem, there are many authorities who have proved beyond cavil that, when comparisons are made between the best types, let them be of white or rose skins or necks, the sugar percentage and the coefficient of purity remain about the same.

Upon general principles, we may admit that most of the existing varieties are connected in some way with the Vilmorin French seed or with the Klein- Wanzleben with some variation. Among the outcome of the latter may be mentioned Tieder, Nordstemmer, Uffingen, Staessener, Schaustedter, Edderitger, Glausiger, Einbecker and Sallovitger, followed by hundreds of others which are mentioned under the names of various dealers, to which, however, we may add the Koppy and Strander.

The olive-shaped beet, such as the Buchner, never met with the success at one time hoped for it. A variety one now hears very little about is the Bestehorn, which is rather rich in sugar. From it were created other varieties. The white Magdeburg beetof Schlieckmann'is very like the Bestehorn variety. From the Vilmorin types many varieties have also been created, and the existing standard is a combination of the original Vilmorin with a German variety, thus correcting the irregular shape that originally existed, and

*In the appendix of the book we srive names and addresges of all the leading: grrowers. and in special cases a general outline of their varieties and claims as to sugar percentage and yield.

EUROPEAN VARIETlfiS OP BEETS. 5

the color of the skin. For many years these very rich Vilmorin beets were irregular in color, shape, etc. Mention must also be made of the Brabant beet, which was the starting point of many varieties which were popular for some years in France and Belgium.

Concluding Remarks.

Taking the beet-seed question as a whole, great improvements are still being made, for in Germany in 1882, the average* sugar in the beet was 13. i; sugar in the juice 14.6; ten years later, in 1892, the average sugar in the beet was 15; sugar in the juice 16.7. True, the kind of soil, etc., have important influences on the variety of beets that may be the most desirable to use, but the question remains, Can many of the seed growers keep their varieties pure under their existing methods of selection and cultivation ? The writer thinks not, for reasons which shall be discussed in the following pages. The difference in price per pound between good and bad seed is not sufficient to permit of any hesitancy in the choice — and the results with superior seed will always be more satisfactory in the end. It is to be regretted that some American seed dealers are oflFering to their customers imported beet seed at ten cents per pound. It is well to call attention to the fact that we doubt if superior beet seed can be produced in Europe and shipped to the United States at that price. More care should be taken in purchasing beet seed than hitherto. Reliable dealers or producers alone should be applied to.

In the pages which follow we enter into considerable detail respecting the science of selection, showing the importance of its continuance from year to year. If neglected, there is sure to follow a degeneration in the varieties under study, owing to atavismistic forces asserting their presence, for which facts the ordinarv seed dealer does not allow. Then both the

6 SUGAK BEET SEED.

farmer and manufacturer who have had confidence, suffer.

The mixing of worthless seed with superior seed has become an industry in several European centres. If beet seed is offered at seven or eight cents per pound, it is well to have it tested by some chemist who thoroughly understands the requisites of germination. Samples should be taken only from bags that have been closed by the seedsman, and opened in the presence of witnesses. It is better to have no dealings with agents, but only with the seed producer. Let this question be thoroughly considered by our farming population contemplating beet cultivation. In most agricultural centres of the United States there are experiment stations, and the question is, Whether their laboratories could not render excellent services by testing beet seed for farmers and manufacturers, as is done with fertilizers? It often happens that seed is sown and its inferior quality is discovered when it is too late.

CHAPTER II. Botanical Considerations Respecting Beet Seed

The Beta Vulgaris, as the sugar beet is called, is the most important of the many hundred varieties of the Chenopodiaceae family to which it belongs. The sugar beet comes under the head of the hermaphrodite series, which originally was annual and through cultivation has become bi-annual. During the first year of its vegetation its function is to utilize its entire effort in sugar elaboration through the intervention of leaves, etc. During the second year there is a transformation of many of these organic principles, the result being seed formation; by this process the texture of the root proper becomes very much more fibrous, during which period there is a growth upward of stems or stalks, which are frequently five feet in height; upon these appear elongated leaves (Fig. i), which are, however, roimdish in shape. The stems throw out branches on which are ears of seed. These are frequently located between the leaves and are generally in clusters of three (Fig. 2), as shown in the enlarged engraving; each agglomeration of flowers contains one to six or seven flowers, in most cases only three, and these are attached or stuck together.

Historical Facts Relating to the Fertilization

of Plants.

Before going into details of the manner in which the flower of the beet is fertilized, it is interesting to recall several facts relating to the past. The ancient authorities had very vague views of the whole question. It was only during the Middle Ages that botanists

8UQAR BEET SEED.

commenced to realize the relative part played by the stamens and pistils, and it was not until the 17th century that there seemed to be any certainty on the question. The well-known authority, Toumefort, declined to admit the facts as then presented; after his death, however, Sebastian Vaillant, in his speech at the"Jardin du Roi," showed the physiological function of stamens and gave practical demonstrations of the truth of his assertion. This was in 1716, hence this date becomei an important historical one in the whole botanical science, and to France is due the main credit of the new departure. Some eight or ten years afterward Linne popularized the Vaillant truths — it was even then noticed that if the stigmas were withdrawn the ovums of the ovary could not be fertilized. The crossing of plants of the same family was daily practiced in botanical laboratories. On the other hand, there exists, then and now, one important exception to these fertilizing facts, for we are told that in the Kew Gardens of London they have a plant which yields seed from year to year, yet there is no indication of its having stamens. Upon general principles, we may admit that the time or period that the fertilization of plants

BOTANICAL COMSlDBBATIOKg.

s when their odor reaches its height; it is when their color is most briUiant, and in theory, it is when the pollen is most actively absorbed by the organs of the pistil. In the case of beet seed, the special characteristic odor just mentioned is, according to Wiesner, due to an organic base known as trimethylamine. Description of the Flower.* The engravings (Figs. 3 and 4) give an excellent idea of the flower taken as a whole, and the na.3. Fenpecllve view of llie flower amieen from-top.

section shows its appearance before and after maturity. The flower proper, when looked at with a strong glass, is shown to consist of the petals

Dpva or leaves of the flower

EiidoBpenu— Another naiua tor the slbumeii o[ h

Micrupyle— CloBed ortflne ol the ■ee<l.

Ovary— Part of plBtil contBlnliiK the ovules of future seed.

Perjparp— Tlie walls of the fruit matured.

Piitll— Or^an to be fertilized and bear the seed ; If we caiisid

the bvtioin It consists of the ovary,i]ie style and the stUmi Flumule— The amall bud or first shoot of a germliialhig plantle

the cotylediins.

Receptacle— The axis or support of the flower. Style— Part of the pistil whlcii bears the stl^ia. atlgma— Part of the pistil which receives the piillen. stamens— The fertilizing oi^aiis and consist of two ]>aris.

meiit nr stalk and the anther.

outer and usually the harder coat or shell of seed.

8UGAR BE£T SEED.

(Fig. 8, z) forming the corolla. They arc slightly colored green and placed behind the five stamens; these petals bend over themselves as the season advances. The beet flower taken together is cup-like in shape, (Fig. 3). The stamens are attached at their base around an inverted saucer-like pistil placed in the centre. The

L.S.W.

Fig. 4. Section of flower showing embryo and stigma.

general arrangement is better shown in the diagram of the flower (Fig. 5). The anthers (Fig. 8, m) have two lobes or cells which open vertically, their section is

FlO. 6.

Plan or diagram of flower.

FlO. 6.

Pollen.

Fig. 7.

Seotion of pollen.

shown in engraving (Fig. 9); the filament or stalk to which they are attached is kept in constant motion by any air disturbance.

The pollen* granule of the sugar beet is spherical

♦stiff has recently analyzed the pollen from beet flowers and finds that it contains : Water 9.78, albumen 16.26, nitric elements non-albuminouR 2.6, fatty substance 3.18, starch and dextrine 0.80, pentosane 11.06, other extractive substances but not nitrogenous 23.7, cellulose 26.46, ash 8.28. In 100 parts of the pollen ash there is 6.8 potassa and 6.66 phosphoric acid.

BCnuXKAJL COMSIUtRATIOKS. 11

in shape (Figs. 6 and 7), and when the proper time arrives is most abundant, more so than with any other plant of which we know. The pollens have a diameter of 20 micro-mtllimeters, but in some cases this may be from 13.3 to 25.8 m. m. The exterior surface of these granules is

smooth, with about thirty-five pores, which have special function during the fertilization of the ovum. The pistil is advantageously placed to receive the pollen on top of the style (Fig 8, /), called stigma. The pistil consists, as it were, of three small leaves, or carpels; these communicate with the ovary. There is only one ovum in each ovary. The fruit, so-called, W'hen only casually examined seems one, but closer observation shows it to be several distinct seeds, which in number

SU6AB BEET SEED.

correspond to the fertilized ovum of each flower. The engraving (Fig. 8), shows several flowers in different states of maturity, all adhering to the same stem; at the same time their pericarps are nearly blended together, and when completely matured they frequently form one.

Fertilization.

When the proper time approaches and the anthers are in a perfect condition of maturity, a very little air

UV»

Fig. 10. Section of flower through pistil.

Fig. 11. Section of nucleus.

is sufficient to carry the pollen from their surface. What seems strange respecting the hermaphrodite plant, such as the beet, is that the male portion of the plant does not, according to Darwin, mature at the same

4 5 6

Fig. 12. Seed development.

time as the female; the consequence is that seldom, if ever, the beet flower is self-fertilized, but it is the pollen from some other flower which happens to be blown in contact with the pistil, to be communicated by the style to the embryo. This assertion coming from any

BOTANICAL COK'SI DERATIONS.

14 HUCAB BEKT 8EBD:

botanist other than such an eminent authority would be refuted, for the anatomy of the beet's flower appears to be particularly favorable for its own fertilization, the abundance of the pollen on the one hand and a single ovary on the other. When the proper conditions are reached, the stigmas become moist and sticky, _ so as to hold the pollen granules that may fall upon them either from the same flower or another close at hand, or, in many cases, very far off. Unlike many other plants, the anther of the beet flower opens freely. The phenomenon of projection of this pollen is of more than usual interest, as mentioned in the foregoing; the period the plant is most active in its fertilization is when the perfume is the most characteristic: the mois-

Fi«. 14. Section of pericarp F'^^- ^^- S«ed taken froni liurd

ture then to a large extent leaves the anthers, a contraction of the ceils holding the pollen follows, the cavity of anthers becoming smaller, and the granules are forced out and thrown a considerable distance. The stigmas retain on their surface a large number of the pollen granules; these, being on a thin absorbing surface, soon swell and are absorbed by osmosis; the pollen then extends itself and the style (Fig. lO, f), allows its passage into the ovary through the micropyle. A section of the flower through the pistil and ovary shows just how the communication is made; the petals are visible. The ovum (Fig. lo, s) has a certain slant on its plane which is the same as that of the carpels. The various stages ("Fig. T2, i, 2,

BOTANICAL CONSIDXRATIONR. 15

3, 4, 5 and 6) of the ovum development from the period of its first fertilization are shown herewith. These are taken from Kruger's observations — the final (Fig.12,6) drawing shows the ultimate seed in its sac. The ovum considered separately undergoes constant changes even before it is fertilized. The ovule consists of a central cone or nucleus (Fig. 11, m), around which there are several layers of cells (Fig, 11, c, and m). The growing is around the nucleus and over it, with the exception of the small opening {Fig. 11, s) or micropyle.' One cell has expanded very much at the expense of the others and soon occupies the greater part of the nucleus. This becomes the embryo-sac, but its formation depends upon the presence of the pollen

tubes. After they have touched the dark spot on top of the nucleus, a membraneous cell wall forms around the protoplastic contents of the sac ; these cells divide and sub-divide, and finally develop the embryo. During this period, in the lower part of the embryo-sac an indefinite number of minute cells are forming; these arc the starting points for the albumen. We neglected to mention that the ovules are generally produced on the outer edge of the capillary leaf; the spongy thickening is known as the funicle.* As the partitions or

16 SUGAR BEET HEED.

cells form, they attach themselves to the narrow part of the sac, the larger part forming the cotyledon.

Enlarged Microscopical Section of the Entire Seed.

The engraving (Fig. 13) is a section of beet seed made by Drs. Westler and Stoklasa. It shows what the conditions are much more satis faciorily than the drawing we have made and described in this writing, C are the two cotyledons; r, radicle; p, perisperm ;e, endosperm (albumen found inside the embryo-sac); t, testa. The endosperm in most cases consists of only one layer, while the testa has two: ist, the yellow, which consists of a single layer of cellulose; 2d, the brown, which is possibly made up of two flat layers. The cur\'ed germ r, radicle, and c, its two

FIO. le. Seotlon M. X. Fio. IB. Starch cell.

cotyledons, retains the perisperm tissue; the cells are, very fatty, and the' starch granules appear rounder elliptical. The lower portion of radicle (r) is covered with a layer (/) of endosperm, which may be detached, and consists of one layer of elongated cells. The cells of which the radicle and cotyledons consist, hold tatty but not starchy granules.

It frequently happens, just as it does in animal physiology, that the ovum is not fertilized; it then withers and disappears, the explanation of which con-

BOTANICAL COKSIDBRATIOKS. If

tinues to be a mystery. The petals and stamens, onc^ their functions are completed, dry up, and in case of beet seed they frequently persistently remain.

Botanical Examination of Beet Seed.

If we examine the seed as found on the market, we find a rather hard substance with a very rough surface and very irregular in shape. By slicing with a knife this so-called seed in one direction, we obtain a section as shown (Fig. 14); if from these sockets, which we examine, the seed proper is withdrawn, we find it has the appearance shown in Fig. 15 as seen in front; on top and side the shape is somewhat triangular and the surface smooth and brown in color; the side view shows it to be convex and generally measures in length 3 m. m. and 1.5 m. m. in width. This seed has no difficulty in penetrating the outer covering through a small opening when the proper conditions of heat and moisture are furnished in the soil. On the outer covering, or pericarp, is frequently found what remains of the carpels, and also, in most cases, the dried petals. A section of the seed, made with a knife, and looked at with a strong glass, reveals its arrangement, the same as shown in section (Fig. 16); at e may be seen the cotyledons and at v the plumule, or the first bud from which will form the shoot of the germinating plantlet above the cotyledons. The root subsequently develops from r. Droysen declares that at r may be found eight to fifteen layers of cells which contain granules of protein in an oleaginous mass. The brown color of the seed comes from its testa covering; this is in several layers, the principal ones being the exterior and interior. Its botanical structure is rather difficult to get at, but under the microscope its appearance is about as shown (Fig. 17), this being many hundred times magnified. The outer layer mainly has for its principal function that of regulating the germination of the seed, by allowing moisture, etc., from the environment in which the seed may be, to enter by osmosis in the proper proportions.

Drs. Westler and Stoklasa have made a very thorough microscopical and chemical examination of the testa, and have discovered that the tissue is largely made up of crystals of oxalate of lime, from which it is concluded that nearly all the calcium of the seed is found in the outer and inner layers of the testa. (The inner cellular layer of the exterior of the testa consists of small cells almost round. The inner yellow ochre layer, on the other hand, consists of a single layer of polygonal elements, which are smaller and not so flat as those of the outer portion of the testa.) It has been possible to extract several grains of the lime oxalate from the testa, and this substance has served for the estimation of pentosanes, by the Tollen-Kruger * method. From the quantity of phlaroglucide, that of the furfurol may be calculated. On a basis of dry substance, it was found that there is 10.24 P^r cent, furfuro! for 18.85 P^^ cent, pentosane. These figures show that the testa is very rich in pentosane; it is said that these substances form a chemical combination with the cellulose of the testa.*