Some Russian heroes, saints and sinners

Front matter

SOME RUSSIAN HEROES SAINTS ^ SINNERS

SONIA E.HOWE

(Vk

Author's Preface

While my first book, A Thousand Tears of Russian History^ was an attempt to trace on a large canvas the broad outlines of Russia's political development, and to sketch in the figures of rulers who stamped their personality on their era, this volume aims at the elaboration of some of these portraits, and also at filling in other, secondary, figures which give fulness to the general effect, and life to the picture.

As Russia has so many more national heroes, legendary as well as historical, than those portrayed in the following pages, the qualifying word " Some " had to appear in the title. There are many other martial heroes whose deeds are chronicled in the annals of her history, as well as numerous noble and heroic souls whose names stand for all that makes life worth living ; there is a whole galaxy of saints — not canonized by the Church — whose memory has been enshrined in the hearts of those who witnessed their Christ-like lives, and a gallery could be filled with portraits of interesting sinners.

The few characters set forth in chronological sequence in this volume must, however, suffice for the present. Of necessity only those historic personalities have been selected who are types of their generation and prototypes of the Russians of to-day. It may surprise some not to find special chapters devoted to Boris vu viii AUTHOR'S PREFACE

Godounov and Avvakum ; these I had prepared, but when my MS. was complete, the limits of space, which the publishers decided to adopt, made it necessary for me either to omit some chapters altogether, or to compress them all. 1 chose the former plan, but hope to publish the two monographs at some future time.

Since temperament changes little with the centuries, it is hoped that these tales may help to make the present generation of Russians better understood — the bravery of the fighting men, the patient endurance of hardship by the masses, the deep religious feeling of the people — no less than the moral courage and strength of conviction displayed by those who have suffered in the cause of liberty.

In order to convey a correct impression of the position the individuals portrayed in this book hold in the mind of the Russian people, and to give a true picture of their character and influence, not merely historical works or official records, but folklore and legend, as well as contemporary narratives and descriptions, foreign and native, have been searched out, studied, and in certain instances quoted in extenso.

The illustrations have been taken from various sources — initials and tail-pieces from ancient Russian MSS. and from contemporary works on Russia, while the plates are mostly copies of pictures by modern Russian artists.

My thanks are once more due to the same friends who so kindly assisted me in my first effort.

I hope, in a third book, to supply a more detailed background to the picture of Russian life ; in fact,

AUTHOR'S PREFACE ix

to deal with the history of Russian civilization from the earliest period up to the time of Peter the Great, when Muscovy began to come into line with the West. This series will, 1 trust, supply such information as may be desired by lovers of that Russia which is thus described by the poet —

" Never can the reason master, Never shall the foot-rule measure Russia's own peculiar essence — Faith alone can fathom Russia."

SoNiA E. Howe.

5/. Luke's Vicarage,

Contents

CHAr. PAGE

author's preface . V

I PREHISTORIC RUSSIA I

Chapter I

URING the course of centuries, many nations and tribes had swept like waves of the sea over the vast plains of South-eastern Europe.

In the earlier years of the era with which we are dealing, the Slav tribes penetrated into Europe, settling on tracts of land deserted by the preceding races, who had either migrated further west or had ceased to exist altogether ; and there, where in classic times the Scythians and Sarmatians had lived, the Slavs now became the predominant race. As time went on, some of these tribes pushed on further west, north and south,

ARCHAIC GOLD ORNAMENT.

and formed a wedge between the Teutonic tribes in the west, the Finnish in the north and north-east, and the Greeks in the south. During this process of colonization they absorbed certain of the Finnish tribes, permeated others, and in some cases, as in the Balkan Peninsula, they gradually ousted the original inhabitants. Between them and their Teutonic neighbours, however,' no fusion was possible ; for there has always been, from earliest times, an insurmountable barrier of race antagonism.

Later on the Slavonic race split up into various nations, each consisting of many tribes, one of which the Polyans, or "People of the Plains," formed the nucleus of the future Russian nation. In close relation to the Polyans stood the Drevlyans, the Krivitchi, the Siviryans, the Tivertse and Dulibes, all of whom were eventually amalgamated into the Russian nation.

The cradle of this new nation was the narrow strip of land on the middle reaches of the mighty river Boristhenes or Dnieper, where Kiev now stands. It has been suggested that the name " Russ " was derived from the tributary of that name which flows into the Dnieper. The exact origin of the Russian people is, however, shrouded in mystery, and authentic information concerning the Russians of prehistoric days has come down to us only through the writings of certain Byzantine Emperors or through reports of Jewish and Arab merchants ; for the earliest contact between the Slavs of the Dnieper region and other nations appears to have been primarily commercial.

There on the northern shores of the Euxine, where

Balaclava, Inkerman and Perekop now stand, first Phoenician and then Greek colonists had penetrated into the hinterland. Inside the funeral mounds (tumuli) of the earliest periods, archaeologists have found evidence of this intercourse with ancient Greek civilization.

At a later date it was Byzantium which sent her merchandise into South-eastern Europe, and Byzantine silversmiths and goldsmiths wrought curious devices for the Slavonic barbarians, who loved to adorn themselves with enamelled or jewelled ornaments and with gorgeous silks woven by Greek hands. Byzantine merchants were, however, forbidden to sell to the Russian traders any roll of silk material worth more than fifty pieces of gold ; evidently such rare silks were to be kept for the exclusive use of the Byzantine ^lite. In return for these articles of luxury, the Russian merchants brought to the great city on the Bosphorus the more homely products of their native country — woodwork, honey, wax, furs, linen, and, last but not least, slaves.

The middle-men for the slave-trade were mostly Jews ; the fair Russian maidens of whom they had to dispose were much in demand, and their charms have been vividly described by Persian connoisseurs of female beauty.

In order to reach the world-market of Byzantium, Russian traders had to undertake a long, tedious and perilous journey in little boats which the forest-dwellers prepared by thousands during the long, dreary winter. In spring-time these were brought to Kiev, the commercial and, later on, also the strategic centre of the new State — the " Russian Land." There merchants from all parts of the country met, and, having purchased at a kind of fair the goods brought thither by hunters and woodsmen, they provided themselves with boats and started off in large parties down the Dnieper to the great markets of the South.

These expeditions were by no means light or simple undertakings, but were full of danger and vicissitudes, for over the vast steppes on the eastern side of the river roamed the wild Petchenegs, who attacked and robbed the river caravans whenever possible, and in order to safeguard themselves against attack, the Russian merchants requisitioned the protection of armed men. It was not, however, only having to keep continually on the alert against the enemy that made the journey irksome, it was the nature of the river itself ; at a certain point, where thirteen rapids made navigation impossible, the boats had to be taken out of the water and dragged along the banks, or even carried upon the shoulders of the men. Besides all this, the harassed merchants had to keep an eye on their human merchandise — the slaves — who were chained together in order to prevent them from escaping.

Thus, after a long, dangerous and wearisome journey, the Russians at last reached the open waters of the Black Sea — the " Russian Sea," as it was called by the Arabs.

When the perils of the journey were over and their destination reached, the Russian traders proceeded to settle down in the quarters set apart for them outside the city of Byzantium, for, as time went on, the Greeks began to fear lest their barbarian customers should settle down and form a permanent colony within their city.

The few descriptions extant regarding the life and customs of the early Russians vary according to the period in which their Greek, Arab or Jewish contemporaries came into touch with them. Yet all agree in their reports as to the physical characteristics of this race, which was said to be tall, handsome, fairhaired and rosy-cheeked. Good-natured and humane in ordinary life, these Russians were reported to be fierce and cruel in warfare, but never treacherous ; warrior-like and brave, with great powers of endurance, *'they were," as a Greek writer said, "conquerable only through their internal dissensions." The same writer speaks of the proverbial love of freedom which was, however, a frequent cause of national weakness. Evidently, each individual had an innate objection to subordinate his personal opinion to that of the community, and this led, only too naturally, to quarrels, and resulted in a lack of solidarity which was made good use of by the enemy. It seems, in fact, that the Russian tribes never united unless threatened by a common foe. It was also said of them that in order to arrive at a lasting understanding, '' fear and presents " were far more effective than treaties, as the Russians seemed to dislike tying themselves down by agreements.

The love of freedom showed itself also in their treatment of captives of war, who were kept as slaves only for a limited term of years, and then were given the option either of returning to their own country or of settling among their captors as free men.

The Russians were also renowned for their hospitality to strangers, and it was even the custom for the host, on the departure of a guest, to accompany him on the journey in order to ensure his reaching his next destination in safety.

The Slavs were a joyous, good-natured, warm-hearted, sociable race — a music and poetry-loving people. There was nothing gloomy either about them or their religious beliefs, which taught them to worship one great God, the Creator of the Universe. They believed, not in a blind fate, but in a destiny ordained by the will of God, and, to this day, the word for the future husband or wife is " the destined one." They believed that by means of sacrifices and vows, which they were most punctilious in offering and fulfilling, the great God could be prevailed upon to grant their requests. This chief Deity was to them the director of all natural phenomena, and the other lesser gods which they worshipped were considered as spirits emanating from him. They were, so to speak, parts of him and not his rivals.

Thus the Russians worshipped both a sun-god and a rain-god — the creative and regenerating powers. To their honour and glory they sang songs and held feasts, with music and dancing. In December, after the shortest day, they celebrated the re-birth of the sun, and in spring the regeneration of life. On June 24, the great feast of Kupcla and Marena, the genii of fertility, was held. On that June night they believed that the secrets of nature were revealed to man ; it was then that he could understand the language of animals, that the fern blossomed, and that hidden treasures became visible. In that warm night, so full of wonder, big fires were lit ; and men and maidens, decorated with leaves and flowers, danced round the flames, jumping through them, in dedication of themselves to the two spirits of the feast.

Of Perun, the chief of the lesser gods, whose special domain was thunder and lightning, they occasionally made images in human form ; representing him as a man holding a shield and having an eagle with outstretched wings perched upon his head. They prayed to him in the forests and under gigantic oaks, where nature reigns supreme, and where the trunks of the trees form the pillars of temples not made with hands. They worshipped Volos, the god of cattle, or of wealth, since to an agricultural people cattle meant riches. They also believed in nymphs and water-sprites who were supposed to inhabit springs, wells and rivers, bogs, and hollow trees. In fact, they personified the phenomena of nature and peopled forest and field with mysterious beings.

The Slavs required no priest, for every man sacrificed his own gifts, and every head of a household those of his family. There were, however, seers among them who could tell the future and interpret oracles. Every man prayed for himself : the merchant before starting on his journey ofl^ered up milk, bread, and other food, and with many genuflexions asked for a good sale for his wares, and on his return home he made a thankofi^ering and distributed food to the poor. The farmer prayed for his harvest, and, lifting up a bowl of golden grain, would say, *' Lord, Thou hast given us food, give it to us in abundance."

There can be no doubt as to their belief in a life after death, for their most solemn oath was, " If I do not keep my word, may I be a slave in this life and in the next." Life after death was merely a prolongation and continuation of existence, but in a land of light, warmth, beauty and good cheer. This Paradise, or ** Rai," was believed to be a beautiful garden, full of trees, verdure and flowers, and to be the place where the migratory birds spent the winter. It was, however, imperative for the relatives of a departed warrior to provide his soul with all the requisites of daily life. Thus, domestic implements, weapons, musical instruments, together with his horse and dog, had either to be placed in the grave over which the funeral mound was raised, or to be burned with the corpse — whichever happened to be the custom of the neighbourhood. A wife, too, had to accompany her dead lord, and the opportunity to do so was given to that one of the many wives who professed to have loved him the best. When the funeral mound had been erected, the ■family and friends of the departed would sit around it and feast and sing, or else listen to songs of his prowess ; while a year later they assembled to commemorate his death. At all their feasts the Russians sang and drank deep of the golden mead, but they drank also on other occasions ; in fact, the verdict of the famous Arab writer was that " the Russian rejoices in drinking and cannot do without it," and that " many a man was called away by death with the goblet raised to his lips."

Under normal conditions, the growing of '' bread " occupied as important a place in the economic life of the Russians as did hunting. It was said at one time of the Slavs that they did not like the pursuit of agriculture, and that they preferred poverty and peace to plenty and trouble. That must have been in a period when nomadic tribes from the East were raiding their fertile lands, making settled life insecure. Two hundred years of quiet followed on that period of stress and danger, and during this time the Slavs of South-eastern Europe had become agriculturists. Then, however, new dangers arose from the warlike Khazars, a Turkish people inhabiting the land east of the Volga, who were ousted in the course of centuries by the fierce Petchenegs, while these again were replaced by the Polovtsi or Cumans. It was due to this state of insecurity that many Russians relapsed into a seminomadic condition of life, while others deserted the insecure plains and went further west to the forest zone, where they were less exposed to raids.

As there was always the danger of attack by these wild nomadic tribes, walled forts came to be built, into which the rural population could flee for protection when the need arose. As time went on these forts increased in number and size, for many people came to settle under their shadow, and thus in process of time cities developed.

Although the primary object of these forts had been strategical, they soon also acquired commercial importance ; and those forts around which the greatest number of people settled gained the hegemony over the others, and thus their political ascendency increased.

lo SOME RUSSIAN HEROES

Many tribes, who were still living without any territorial or civic organization, gradually recognized the supremacy of these cities. In this manner important centres developed, such as Novgorod, on the Volkhov, near Lake Ilmen ; Smolensk, at the source of the Dnieper ; Pskov, on Lake Peipus ; and Kiev, on the Dnieper.

Greek writers comment on the fact that the form of government among the Russians was not at all monarchical, but, on the contrary, very democratic. Yet it was associated with patriarchal rule ; for, in point of fact, the Elders — the older and more experienced men — governed the cities, while the whole land was under the rule of a Council, or Vietcha, to which each town sent its representatives ; and whatever course of action the leading towns decided upon, the lesser ones had to carry out. Thus urban republics developed. It was in times of danger only that the cities required the services of a military chief, and then some man, renowned for courage and bravery, was chosen by the Elders to protect the town against an attack, or was bidden to lead the warriors against the foe. His duty was to ward off aggressive attacks by the enemy, and to protect the trade of the citizens, and for this purpose he frequently hired mercenary troops of Scandinavians. For these Norsemen, in the same way as they had settled on the shores of Britain and France, had also reached the shores of the Gulf of Finland. They had penetrated through the River Neva into Lake Ladoga, and from there they had gone up the River Volkhov into Lake Ilmen, where they had even temporarily conquered Novgorod, the chief city of the northern

PREHISTORIC RUSSIA ii

Russians. Other " Varangians," as these Vikings were called, took service under Kiev, and accompanied her trade caravans to Byzantium.

As it not infrequently happened that members of the same family were chosen to be military chiefs, dynasties of " Knyazi " or princes developed, without, however, enjoying any territorial rights. The Knyazi who lived in the chief towns had to send their representatives to lesser forts, and thus a class of Governors was evolved — the Possadniki.

The whole population of the Russian lands was divided into tens, hundreds, and thousands, and over each unit there was a head man, the " thousandth man " often acting as the civic assistant of the military chief.

It was the possibility of securing a band of warriors ready to go anywhere in the hope of returning laden with booty, which enabled the military chiefs of Kiev and of other cities to undertake expeditions on their own account, and not only to follow the dictates of the city Elders. Thus, from being merely protectors, the princes became aggressors. They provided the Norsemen, who formed their personal following, with weapons and clothing, and gave them the opportunity of enriching themselves at the expense of the enemy. In this way, accompanied by their '' Drujina," or band of friends, the princes made raids into neighbouring countries, and even into distant lands, such as Greece and the southern shores of the Black Sea, and as far as the Caspian. Having conquered new lands, they ruled over these by right of conquest ; and thus, having enriched themselves by means of spoils of war, and having become influential owners of territory, the elected military chiefs gradually became independent and hereditary rulers.

Although Novgorod was a great town, yet the greatest and richest among the cities of prehistoric Russia was Kiev. Of the rise of this far-famed city nothing is known, but tradition says that it was so named after a chief called Kee who had settled on the high banks of the river Dnieper. By the time the full light of history falls on Russia, Kiev was already the acknowledged political centre of the Russian lands, although paying tribute to the Khagan of the Khazars, whose capital was Itil, on the Volga. On their way to Byzantium the traders from the north had to pass by it, and the route from the Baltic along the Dnieper down to the Euxine was known as the " Greek Way." From the eastern side, too, a road led up to Kiev. Persia, and even India, sent of their treasures to this famous city from which a road went to the west through Galicia to the markets of Italy and Germany.

Within its walls and on the hills lived many rich patrician families of merchant-warriors. Gardens and orchards surrounded the town, into which the people of the outlying districts brought their produce. In the farmyards, fowls and pigeons, geese and swans provided food for the rich, while the forest-dwellers gathered the honey out of the hollow trunks of trees. The honey thus obtained went to the making of the golden mead for the f eastings of the great. The wax was sold to the traders, and also the valuable furs which the huntsmen brought to the city — black fox, and white squirrel, sable and marten.

While the people worked, prince and bogatyr made war, hunted the boar and wild horse, or rode out to the chase, falcon on wrist. All, however, without distinction, whether peasant, hunter, merchant or prince, loved good cheer, dancing and music, and were brave, generous and hospitable.

SCYTHIAN TAMING HORSES.

From a fourth-century B.C. vase.

CHAPTER II r W ^ iMI^M

X

■ '■ 1 ''/'.' ' './

. ""' -^ — ^- 1

WARRIOR, FROM A FRESCO, KIEV.

iRADITION tells that to the hardy Norsemen of Scandinavia came messengers from the people of Novgorod, saying, " Our country is vast and fertile, but there is no order in it ; come, therefore, and rule over us ! " and, according to the chronicler, Varangians did not hesitate to accept this generous invitation.

Thus it happened that only a few years earlier than the Vikings, Ingvar and Hubbar, said to be the sons of the great Scandinavian hero, Ragnar Lodbrog, were invading England, the Viking Rurik and his brothers, Sineus and Truvor, started for Russia. They left the shores of Scandinavia and, sailing across the Gulf of Finland and up the Neva, they entered the great northern lake ; and where the river Volkhov flows into its crystal waters, Rurik founded, in 862, a town which he named Ladoga. To his brothers he gave Byelo-ozero and Isborsk, but as they died without leaving any heirs, all the lands soon came again under his rule. Later on he left Ladoga, making Novgorod his capital and the centre of his dominions, whence his rule extended over many parts of Russia. Novgorod was surrounded by marshes and forests, and while the people living within the city were traders, those living around it were hunters, who brought thither costly furs which were carried south by the ** Greek Way " to Byzantium, or down the Volga to Itil, the capital of the Khazars. There Arab merchants bought them to re-sell to the rich people of Baghdad, while in return the Russians purchased fine oriental blades and bright beads, much beloved by Russian women.

On his deathbed Rurik entrusted his principality and his infant son Igor to the care of his trusted friend and kinsman Oleg, as true and bold a knight as legendary hero ever was. Fierce and mighty, brave and adventurous, Oleg was just the leader whom both Varangians and Russians loved to behold and to follow.

Novgorod, however, under the grey northern skies, did not satisfy Oleg, whose imagination had been fired by tales of the beauty of Kiev and of the glory of Byzantium. Two bold Varangian knights, Askold and Dir, were at that time ruling over Kiev. Long ago they had left Rurik and gone further south, intending to go on to Byzantium ; but on their way thither they had taken Kiev and had made it their stronghold.

Kiev stood as a queen among the Russian cities. From it the two knights made many expeditions against Byzantium, sometimes by way of attack and sometimes for purposes of trade. In order to make friends with these barbarians from the north, and to come to terms with them, the Greek Emperor Basilius gave them costly presents of gold and silver and silk garments, and in the hope of taming these " unconquerable heathens " he sent a Bishop to Kiev to preach to them the doctrines of Christianity. In 86 1, two hundred Russians were actually baptised. Among these was Askold the Viking, who, however, was less powerful than Dir, or " Al Din," described by the Arab historian as the chief of the Slav kings, and as possessing many populous and great cities.

Danger, however, was threatening Askold and Dir, for Oleg was irresistibly drawn towards the south, to sunnier climes ; taking the boy Igor with him, and accompanied by his faithful band of followers, the valorous knight started out for Kiev. They experienced many adventures on this expedition, till at last they reached that fair city on the high bank of the river Dnieper. On the other side stretched the endless steppes, decked in the full beauty of bright flowers, which made the meadows a joy to the eyes. Odysseuslike, Oleg decided to take possession of the fair city by guile, and therefore sent a message to her rulers, saying that some peaceful merchants from Novgorod, on their way to Byzantium, had arrived and craved hospitality. The unsuspecting chiefs came out of their walled city to hold speech with the far-travelled merchants, when suddenly they were surrounded by warriors, and Oleg, lifting the boy Igor on his shield, called out to Askold and Dir : "This is your liege lord, Igor, Rurik's son ; ye are but adventurers ! " Before thev could even think of defendinQ- themselves they were treacherously stabbed.

Thus Kiev fell into the hands of Oleg, who now forsook Novgorod for good, making Kiev his headquarters, from which he ruled the Russian lands.

Past Kiev flowed the mighty river Boristhenes or Dnieper, whose tributaries spread themselves like a network all over the country. Along these waterways travelled the boats of the traders bringing their wares to the fairs held in the city, which grew steadily in importance and power.

Not for long, however, was Oleg satisfied with having taken Kiev ; his desire was for war and conquest, and thus, one after the other, tribes, peoples, and cities were conquered by him, all of which had to pay tribute, some in pieces of gold, others in furs. Many chiefs joined him, for this powerful leader of men attracted all who loved boldness and valour, danger and adventure. They rode with him to the hunt, and followed him on his expeditions. Clever and cunninor he was also a wise ruler : he built walled forts as shelters from the inroads of the dangerous nomadic tribes who roamed over the steppes, and entered into relations with other tribes, proving himself in every way a noble king. So wise was he, so far-seeing and shrewd, that the people called him Veshtchii — " he who sees."

Many years passed, and when Igor, Rurik's son, was grown up his guardian gave him a beauteous maiden — Prekrasnaya — to wife, whom Oleg named Olga, after himself. However, even after Igor had reached manhood, Oleg still ruled in his stead — and Igor was content that he should do so.

Although Oleg ruled in Kiev and was great and mighty, he longed to see Byzantium, of whose beauty, riches and treasure he had heard so much. When, therefore, the Tsar of Bulgaria sent messengers begging assistance in his proposed attack on Byzantium, the valorous knight at once agreed to render it.

Thus he started on his famous expedition, of which in after years the bards used to sing. With eighty thousand men in two thousand boats, and accompanied by a great number of horsemen, Oleg, clad in shimmering armour, followed by his gallant Drujina, rode southward to victory. Unheeded was the tediousness of the river route, while dangers were welcomed.

As he one day approached the dark forest a wizard came out to meet him, and, addressing the old man, Oleg spoke thus : " Tell me, O Wizard, thou favourite of Perun ! what will befall me in the future ? Shall I, ere long, lie buried beneath the cool earth to the joy of my enemies ? Be not afraid to open up before me the future. As a reward I will give thee the choice of my horses." . . . But the wizard declined the offer ; for, fearless, true, and not to be bought was the seer, and thus he spake to Oleg : " Dark loom before me the coming years, but bright appears thy fate in my vision. Yet, take this my warning to heart. Victory, gain, and renown will be thine, and thou shalt hang thy shield on the gates of Byzantium. Water and land will favour thee, safe shalt thou be both from dagger and arrow, and no wound shalt thou receive in battle. Thy horse, too, will be fearless and brave, and will carry thee safe over the field of battle ; and yet death will overtake thee through this thy steed."