Sentences and their elements

Front matter

It has survived long enough for the copyright to expire and the book to enter the public domain. A public domain book is one that was never subject to copyright or whose legal copyright term has expired. Whether a book is in the public domain may vary country to country. Public domain books are our gateways to the past, representing a wealth of history, culture and knowledge that's often difficult to discover.

Marks, notations and other marginalia present in the original volume will appear in this file - a reminder of this book's long journey from the publisher to a library and finally to you.

Google is proud to partner with libraries to digitize public domain materials and make them widely accessible. Public domain books belong to the public and we are merely their custodians. Nevertheless, this work is expensive, so in order to keep providing this resource, we have taken steps to prevent abuse by commercial parties, including placing technical restrictions on automated querying.

Preface

In the main this book aims to give, as briefly as possible, the facts which the student in college needs as a foundation for his study of language. Many enter without this elementary knowledge and are, as a result, seriously crippled in their classes in foreign languages as well as in their use of English. The text-books used in preparatory schools give dogmatically "rules of good use," but the student in college, who should think as well as remember and obey, needs a somewhat different treatment. The grammars and rhetorics used in college generally assume more effective knowledge of the elementary facts of language than the great majority in the classes actually possess. For this reason the following chapters deal with things which should have been learned in the grammar grades or in the first years in the high school, but according to a method which seems better adapted to the student who is more mature and who is studying other languages as well as his native tongue.*

Some suggestions as to "good use " are also given, but since that subject is well treated in many standard text-books, it will be considered here only when it throws important light on the fundamental facts of language.

The method of sentence study which has been adopted here may be seen from the following outline: —

A. Preliminary considerations: Language.

I. General uses of language.

II. The implements of written and spoken expression. III. .Limitations in the use of these implements which should be recognized. (Chapter I.)

* References are made in this book chiefly to French and German; now and then also to Anglo-Saxon, Greek, Latin, Spanish, and Italian.

IV PREFACE

B, Analysis of sentences.

I. Sentences as wholes.

1. General character of sentences.

2. The structure of simple and complicated sen-

tences. (Chapter II.) II. Sentence elements.

1. Words in their relations to other words.

(a) The parts of speech as determined by their use in sentences. (Chapter III.)

(6) Variations in form of words to express their relations in sentences. (Chapter IV.)

(c) Determination of the forms of words to be used in sentences. (Chapter V.)

{d) The order and grouping of words in sentences (including the use of marks of punctuation). (Chapter VI.)

2. Words considered individually.

(a) Choice of words.

(6) Pronunciation.

(c) Spelling.

id) Use of capital letters. (Chapter VII.)

C Synthesis of sentences.

I. Length.

II. Emphasis.

III. Other problems. (Chapter VIII.)

The materials given here may be used in different ways to answer different purposes. Any one who wishes to study the subject systematically would do well to take the book up chapter by chapter as presented. If all that is desired is to review the subject, that may be done by using the "topical synopses," which indicate definitely section by section what is treated in each chapter. In each section, where there is occasion, the gist of the matter is suggested by bold-faced type; the essential explanatory matter is printed in ordinary type; and, insome cases,

PREFACE V

further materials are given in fine print. If it is desired to use the book merely for reference, the alphabetical index at the back will be found serviceable for that purpose.

To make the study 0/ the book effective, it should be accompanied by much sentence analysis, and that should be based largely on the written work of the students. In fact the book should be used as far as possible as a means of removing difficuLties which have been actuaUy found in the use of langiuige, rather than as a special and independent study. For this reason, only enough illustrations have been given to make the explanations clear; but if the student will make note of all the important cases which offer him difficulty and write in examples taken from his own reading and writing, he will gather the materials for the most valuable language study. A real understanding of the fundamental facts of language can be gained only through serious study. It is the purpose here, not to open a short cut to knowledge, but to assist the teacher and guide the student in making a thorough study of sentences and their elements.

A treatment such as this must inevitably be at every step the result of compromises between historical and linguistic accuracy and breadth of view on the one hand, and brevity and simplicity of statement on the other. Whether or not such compromises have been wisely made must be determined by the practical use of the book, and the authors will be glad to receive further suggestions.

Note to the Second Edition. — In revising, it has been possible to adopt valuable suggestions made by various teachers of English and of modern languages who have used the first edition. Experience has shown that the subject as here presented may be taken up in many ways, and may be abbreviated or expanded according to the needs of different classes and the resources of individual teachers. Attention is again called to the advantage of having each student note in the appropriate sections illustrations from his writing or reading of all points which offer him special difficulty.

Contents

CHAP. PAGE

Topical Synopses of Chapters vii

I. Language 1

CHAPTER I Language

A. Definition of language.

I. First use of language.

II. The implements of spoken and written expression. 1. III. Second use of language. 2.

B. Limitations in the use of language.

I. General limitations.

1. In thought.

2. In speech.

3. In writing. 3.

II. The possibilities of overcoming limitations of expression. 4.

III. The ideal to be striven for. 5.

C. Freedom and restriction of the individual speaker or writer.

I. Language more living in some parts than in

others. 6.

II. Logical and idiomatic forms of expression. 7. III. General restrictions: correct use. 8.

1. Correct use of secondary importance. 9.

2. Results of the use of incorrect forms. 10.

3. The ideal to be striven for. 11. rV. Special restrictions.

1. The restrictions of " good use."

(a) Local: geographical, technical, colloquial.

(6) Temporal: archaic, slang.

(c) Limitations of fitness: indecent, unfit, vulgar. 1J8.

2. The value of the canons of good use. 13.

Tii

J

VUl SENTENCES (Chap. II

3. The way in which these restrictions should be

observed, (a) Local. (6) Temporal, (c) Limitations of fitness. 14.

4. Origin and cure of offenses against good

taste. 15.

5. The ideal to be striven for. 16.

D. The subject of the following chapters. 17.

E. What we owe our native tongue. 18.

CHAPTER II Sentence Structure

A. Definition of a sentence.

I. As a imlt of expression. 19.

II. As a combination of subject and predicate. 20,

B. Ways of combining subject and predicate.

I. The primitive sentence. 21.

II. The logical proposition, formed by use of the

copula. 192.

III. Grammatical sentences: subject and predicate. IS3.

C. Analysis of sentences.

I. Fundamental elements.

1. Subject: a substantive.

(a) Definition.

(6) When subject may be omitted.

(c) When subject may be doubled. 194.

2. Predicate: verb or verb and complement. 25.

(a) Verb.

Expressing idea of connection only:

copula. 26.

Expressing idea of connection and idea of existence, 27; of state of being or change of state, 28; of action, 29.

Chap. II) TOPICAL SYNOPSES OF CHAPTEKS IX

Tabular classification of verbs. 30.

Verb-expressions. 31. (6) Complement:

With copula and verbs expressing change of state of being: predicate nominative or predicate adjective;

With transitive verbs in active voice : predicate object;

With verbs expressing existence, intransitive verbs, and transitive verbs in passive voice: no complement. 32.

3. Tabular view of forms of subject and predi-

cate. 33.

4. Indirect object, resultant object, and result-

ant adjective. 34.

II. Modifiers.

III. Primary and secondary modifiers

Modifiers which qualify: — (a) substantives: adjectives.

nouns, in possessive case and in apposition.

apparent adverbs.

(6) verbs, adjectives, and adverbs:

adverbs. 35.

Different kinds of sentences according to the idea expressed.

Declarative.

Interrogative.

Exclamative.

Imperative.

Optative. 36.

SENTENCES (Chap. Ill

IV. Compound and complex sentences and elements.

1. Compound sentences. Conjunctions.

2. Compound elements. 37.

3. Phrases and clauses. 38.

y. Tabular view of simple and complex sentences. 39. VI. Parts of sentences which have no structural relationships.

1. Interjections.

2. Absolute constructions.

3. Vocatives.

4. Words of affirmation or denial.

5. Certain parenthetical expressions. 40.

CHAPTER III The Parts of Speech

A. Names and classification of the parts of speech. 41.

B. The separate parts.

I. Nouns.

1. Definition.

2. Uses in the sentence.

(a) Nouns expressing substance (concrete) : Common, Proper,

Collective (quantitative). (6) Nouns expressing quality: Adjective nouns.

Abstract nouns, (c) Nouns expressing action or occurrence: Infinitives,

Verbal nouns in -ing. 42.

II. Pronouns.

1. Definition. (Antecedent.)

2. Uses in the sentence.

Chap. Ill) TOPICAL SYNOPSES OF CHAPTERS XI

(a) Demonstrative.

(6) Personal:

(c) Possessive.

id) Reflexive.

(e) Reciprocal.

(g) Relative.

(h) Collective and partitive.

(i) Adjective. 43.

III. Adjectives.

Definition and use.

Position.

(a) Attributive.

(b) Appositive.

(c) Predicate.

Kinds.

(a) Qualifying.

(6) Limiting: —

Numeral:

Cardinal,

Ordinal, Indefinite article,

Quantitative,

Pronominal:

Demonstrative, Definite article,

Possessive,

Relative,

Collective and partitive, .

Nominal.

(c) Verbal (participles):

Present,

IV. Adverbs. ^«^- ^'

Definition and use.

Negatives. 45.

Xll SENTENCES (Chap. IV

V. Verbs.

(a) As explained in sections J86-30. (6) Regular and irregular.

(c) Strong and weak.

(d) Defective.

(e) Impersonal. (/) Auxiliary. 46.

VI. Prepositions. ^

1. Definition and use. (Object.) 47* VII. Conjunctions.

(a) Coordinating. (6) Subordinating, (c) Correlative. 48.

VIII. Interjections.

CHAPTER IV Variations in Form op Words

A. Kinds of grammatical variation. Explained in each case

with reference to a common form. 50.

B. Variations which affect nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and

adverbs.

I. Number. Definition. Singular and plural. 1. Number of nouns.

(a) General rule for forming the plural. (6) Special rules: —

Variation in sound and spelling.

Variations in spelling.

Plural of letters, signs, etc.

Plural of surnames with titles.

Chap. IV) TOPICAL SYNOPSES OP CHAPTERS Xlll

Plural of compound nouns.

Nouns without plural.

Nouns without singular.

Irregular plurals.

Foreign plurals.

2. Number of pronouns.

3. Number of adjectives.

4. Number of verbs.

II. Gender. Definition. Masculine, feminine, neuter, and common.

1. Masculine and feminine terminations and

prefixes.

2. Grammatical gender.

3. Epicene.

4. Gender of pronouns.

5. Gender of adjectives. 5!3.

III. Case. Definition.

1. Nouns: common and possessive.

(a) Rule for forming the possessive.

Exceptions and special cases.

2. Cases of pronouns: subject, possessive, object.

3. Cases of adjectives.

4. Cases in other languages. 53.

IV. Person. Definition.

1. Person of nouns.

2. Person of personal pronouns: first, second,

third.

3. Third-person pronouns of demonstrative origin.

4. Personal endings of verbs. 54.

V. Comparison. Definition.

1. Positive degree.

2. Comparative degree.

3. Superlative degree.

Xiv SENTENCES (Chap. IV

Formation of comparative and superlative: —

(a) By endings.

(6) By use of more and most.

(c) By use of less and host.

{d) Irregular formations. 55.

VI. Paradigms.

Nouns.

Pronouns: —

(a) Personal.

(6) Reflexive.

(c) Possessive.

(d) (Possessive adjectives.)

(e) Demonstrative.

(/) Interrogative.

(flr) Relative.

Qi) Collective and partitive.

Adjectives.

Adverbs. 56.

C Variations (other than person and number) which affect verbs. 57.

I. Voice.

1. Difference between active and passive (see

section 28).

2. Formation of passive.

3. Middle:

reflexive, reciprocal. 58.

II. Mode. Definition.

1. Indicative.

2. Imperative.

3. Conditional.

4. Subjunctive and optative.

5. Potential, or modal auxiliary.

6. Infinitives and participles. 59.

Chap. IV) TOPICAL SYNOPSES OP CHAPTERS XV

III. Tense. Definition.

1. Distinctions in tense according to the time and

to the point of consideration.

2. Formation of present and past tenses.

(a) Simple present and past. (6) Progressive, (c) Emphatic.

3. Use and meaning of present and past tenses.

(a) Simple present. (6) Absolute present.

(c) Simple past.

(d) Progressive present and past.

(e) Historical presents. (/) Emphatic tenses.

4. Future.

(a) Origin.

(6) Meaning of shall and wiU.

(c) Present use of the auxiliaries for the

future.

(d) Distinction between first and second and

third persons.

(e) Modal future auxiliaries.

(/) English future compared with French

and German. (g) Indirect futures. (h) (Formation of conditional.) (i) (Special uses of should and woidd.) (j) Difficulties in the use of shall and mU,

5. Compound tenses.

(a) Formation and general meaning. (6) Present compound.

(c) Past compound.

(d) Future compound.

(e) Dating past and future events. 60.

XVI SENTENCES (Chap.V

IV. Paradigms.

1. Auxiliaries.

(a) To he, to have, to do, 61. (6) Shall, wiU, may, can, must, ought. 62. (c) Meanings of may, might, can, coidd, and must. 63.

2. A sample verb complete. 64.

V. Formation of verbs from the principal parts. 65.

CHAPTER V Determination op the Forms of Words

A, Two factors in the determination of the form. 66.

B, Determination according to the structure of the sentence.

I. Subject of a finite verb.

2. Three special cases. 67.

II. Subject of an infinitive.

2. One special case. 68.

III. Agreement Of the verb.

2. Special cases of agreement in person.

3. Special cases of agreement in number.

(a) Subject you or we, (h) Compound subject.

(c) Subject logically compound.

(d) Subject with intervening modifier.

(e) Subject and complement of different

number.

(f) Verb introduced by there,

(g) Subject a collective or partitive.

Qi) Subject a collective noun. 69.

Chap. VI) TOPICAL SYNOPSES OP CHAPTERS XVU

IV. The predicate nominative.

2. Disjunctive use in French and English. 70. V. The object of a verb or preposition.

2. Special case. 71.

VI. Agreement of pronoun.

2. In German and Romance languages.

3. Agreement with a collective or partitive.

4. Necessity for a real antecedent.

5. Ambiguous antecedent.

6. The use of the pronoun one. 72.

VII. A substantive in apposition.

2. Special case. 73.

VIII. Adjectives or adverbs.

2. Special case.

3. Shaksperean use. 74.

IX. Coordinate sentence elements.

2. Illustrations of special cases. 75.

X. Comparison.

XI. Indirect quotations.

1. Sequence of tenses.

2. Change in person of pronouns. 77.

CHAPTER VI Order and Grouping of Words in Sentences

A. Importance of order and grouping of words. 78.

B. Order of words.

I. The general requirement. 79.

Xviii SENTENCES (Chap. VI

II. Method of treatment employed here. 80. III. General rules.

1. In declarative sentences.

(a) Order of fundamental elements. 81. (h) Position of modifiers.

Adjective.

Adverb.

With finite verbs.

With infinitives. 88. (c) Order of words in the Romance languages and in German. 83.

2. In exclamative, imperative, and optative sen-

tences. 84.

3. In interrogative sentences. 85. rV. Possibility of variation in order.

1. Emphasis.

2. Clearness. 86.

C. Grouping of words: punctuation.

I. Necessity for grouping. 87.

II. Historical development of use of group signs.

III. Two theories of punctuation. 88.

IV. Three fundamental points.

1. Punctuation marks may both separate and join.

2. Marks are used according to two general sys-

tems.

3. Marks may be divided into three groups:

(a) Marks of generally fixed usage. (h) Marks of varjdng usage, (c) Marks other than pimctuation marks. 89.

V. Marks of generally fixed usage.

1. The sentence marks. 90.

2. Other uses of the period. 91.

3. Other uses of the interrogation point. 93.

4. Other uses of the exclamation point. 93.

Chap. VII) TOPICAL SYNOPSES OP CHAPTERS xix

5. Uses of the apostrophe. 94.

6. Uses of the hyphen. 95.

7. Uses of quotation marks. 96.

8. Uses of the dash. 97.

VI. Marks of varying uses.

1. General character of this group of marks. 98.

2. Marks to indicate members of a series. 99.

(a) Series of unequals. 100. (6) Series of equals. 101

3. Marks of parenthesis. 102.

4. Marks to indicate ellipsis. 103.

5. Other uses of commas. 104.

6. Another use of semicolons. 105.

7. Other uses of colons. 106.

VII. Marks other than punctuation marks.

1. Ditto marks.

2. The caret.

3. Accent marks.

4. Marks of quantity.

5. The diaeresis.

6. The cedilla.

7. The tilde. 107.

CHAPTER VII Individual Words A, The problems of individual words

I. Choice of words.

II. Pronunciation.

III. Spelling.

IV. Use of capital letters. 108.

B. Choice of words. The way in which the subject is

treated here. 109.

I. The fundamental problem of expression in words. 110.

XX SENTENCES (Chap. VII

II. The part which the choice of words plays in expression. 111.

III. The interdependence of words for their meanings.

lis.

rV. Necessity of choosing words which are exact for the

occasion. 113.

V. Necessity of choosing words which are exact for the readers addressed. 114.

VI. Necessity of choosing effective and economical words.

VII. Necessity of choosing words which are expressive of

living meaning. 116.

C, Pronunciation.

I. Need of considering pronunciation.

II. Permissible variation.

III. Objectionable pronunciation and enunciation. 117.

D, Spelling.

I. Chaotic condition of English spelling. 118.

II. A few practical suggestions only given here. 119.

III. Finale. 130.

IV. Double or single consonants. 1!31.

V. Final y. 13».

VI. Obscure vowels. 123.

VII. Words ending in -at or -fe. 1134.

E, The use of capital letters.

I. First word of sentences, lines of poetry, and quotations.

II. In titles of books, etc.

III. Proper nouns, adjectives and verbs derived from

proper nouns, and official titles.

IV. Words used for the Deity.

V. Personification.

VI. JandO.

VII. Special cases in the salutations of letters. VIII. For emphasis, in special cases. 125.

Chaf.VIII) topical SYNOPSES OP CHAPTERS XXI

CHAPTER VIII Synthesis of Sentences

A. The problems of synthesis of sentences to be considered

B, Length.

I. Unity, in sentences, partly a question of length. 127. II. The fundamental limitation as to length. 1%S. III. Length in part determined by personality of writer

and by the subject of discourse. 129. rV. Relation of length of sentence to the rhetorical form. V. Need of variety in length of sentences. 130.

C. The possibilities of emphasis. 131.

I. Stress and organic emphasis. 132. 11. Emphasis of position.

1. The beginning and the end of a sentence.

2. The effect of placing words in other than the

grammatical order. 134.

3. Possibilities of emphasis in a single sentence. 135.

D, Other problems of synthesis of sentences. 136,