The rose: its history, poetry, culture, and classification

Preface

The commencement and partial preparation of this work assisted to beguile the tedium of a winter's residence from home, where. even Orange and Magnolia groves, with the luxuriant vegetation of a semitropical region, could scarcely dispel the ennui attending a life of idleness. Oiir especial object has been to throw around the culture of the Rose a halo of pleasant thoughts and associations ; and while to the mere cultivator there may seem much irrelevant matter of history, poetry, and the like, we think that it will not thus seem to all. For the classical scholar, the early history of the Rose, and its connection with the manners and customs of the two great nations of a former age, will impart to it no slight interest ; while the various poetic effusions, which we have endeavored to string together in a multifarious garland, will clothe our favorite flower with additional charms in the eyes of many, and render it perhaps more attractive with the gentler sex, to whom pre-eminently belong the culture and the care of flowers.

For many interesting facts in the History and Culture of the Rose, we are indebted to Deslongchamps, Vibert, Laffay, and several anonymous writers. To the former we wish most fully to express our obligations, both for the plan of this work and for many interesting facts and researches, to which we cannot conveniently attach his name in the body of the work.

Upon the classification we have bestowed much thought, and although we do not feel quite satisfied with the system we have adopted, it is the best that occurs to us in the present condition of rose culture. The amateur will, we think, find the labor of selection much diminished by the increased simplicity of the mode we have adopted, while the commercial gardener will in nowise be injured by the change.

IV PREFACE,

In directions for culture, we give the results of our own experience and have not hesitated to avail ourselves of any satisfactory results in the experience of others, which might enhance the utility of the work.

The colored engravings were drawn from nature, by one of the best Parisian artists, and are deemed correct portraits.

While we do not claim exemption from hyper criticism in any form, we readily express our willingness to be ever open to conviction, in a field where, among the varied results of experiment and skill, there is much room for diflference of opinion.

For our labor we shall feel abundantly compensated, if the publication of this work shall in any way tend to produce a more general admiration and increased culture of the most beautiful denizen of the floral kingdom. S. B P

Garden Classification, 237

HISTOET OF THE ROSE.

Chapter I. The Early History Op The Rose, And Fables Respecting

ITS ORIGIN.

|ERY little is known of the early histoiy of the Rose, or who were its first cultivators ; and on this point all is conjecture. Mention of it is made in the ancient Coptic manuscripts, while nothing concerning it can be distinguished, with any degree of certainty, on the Egyptian monuments which are left us. Bocastre, the French traveler, observes, that he carefully searched all the monuments in Egypt, and could find neither sculpture nor painting, figure nor hieroglyphic, that would lead us to suppose that the Rose was cultivated by the ancient Egyptians. We are, however, induced to believe that this beautiful flower was known to them, from the fact that several varieties are now found in Egypt. Dr. Delile, Director of the Botanic Garden at Montpelier, and with whom we enjoyed some pleasant intercourse during a recent visit to that place, was with Napoleon in his expedition to Egypt. In his valuable published account of that expedition, he mentions that he found there two varieties of the Rose — Rosa alba and Rosa centifolia ; and there is also reason to believe, that under Domitian the Egyptians cultivated another variety — Rosa hifera. It is quite probable that the Rose was planted in the celebrated gardens of Babylon, the formation of which is attributed to Semiramis, about 1200 years before the Christian era ; and it also appears probable, from the testimony of modern travelers, that several kinds of roses crossed over into Persia.

It is very certain that the Rose was cultivated by the Jews during the reign of Solomon, about two centuries after Semiramis ; for mention of this flower is made in the Scripture books attributed to that king. In the Song of Solomon, he says : " I am the Rose of Sharon and the Lily of the valleys ;" and in the Apocryphal Wisdom of Solomon — " Let us crown ourselves with rose-buds before they be withered."

It also appears, by several passages of the Book of Ecclesiasticus, the author of which lived about 700 years after Solomon, that the Jews possessed beautiful gardens of roses, particularly at Jericho. " I was exalted like a palm-tree in Engaddi, and as a rose-plant in Jericho :" xxiv. 14. " Hearken unto me, ye holy children, and bud forth as a rose growing by the brook of the field :" xxxix. 13. " And as the flower of roses in the spring of the year :" 1. 8. These passages prove that this most fertile and beautiful portion of Palestine abounded in roses, palms and cedars. They no longer, however, abound ; for while "the cedars wave on Lebanon," and the solitary palm stands in its isolated beauty, the Rose has entirely disappeared ; and that now called the Rose of Jericho, is but a little plant of the family of CrucifercB. The Greeks cultivated the Rose at an early period, during the time of Homer, who lived about 200 years after the wise Hebrew monarch. In the Iliad and Odyssey he borrows the brilliant colors of the Rose to paint the rising of the sun. Aurora, according to this poet, has fingers of roses, and perfumes the air with roses. Few poets are more celebiated than Homer for beauty of conception, and for his frequent similes borrowed from natural objects. His selection, in this instance, evinces that the Rose was neither an unknown nor an unadmired flower. Herodotus, who lived

EARLY HISTORY OF THE ROSE.

about 400 years before the Christian era, mentions that in Macedonia, in the gardens which were supposed to have belonged to Midas, there were roses of sixty petals, which grew spontaneously without culture, and emitted a most delightful perfume.

Ancient writings are full of allusions to the Rose and fabulous accounts of its origin. From its brilliant colors, melting into each other as the shades of night melt into the glowing richness of the rising sun, it was frequently consecrated to Aurora. It was also consecrated to Harpocrates, the patron of Silence, of which it was considered the symbol. Thus the expression '■'■sub rosa " (under the Rose), signified that all that was said should remain secret ; and there is scarcely used a more expressive device for a seal, than the simple figure of a Rose. It was the custom, in some of the northern countries, to suspend a Rose over the table in the dining-room, reminding the guests that silence should be observed respecting all that might be said during the meal.

Anacreon, Bion, Theocritus, Apollodorus, and others, relate various fables respecting its origin and its obtaining the bright color for which it is distinguished.

One fable relates that Flora, having found the dead body of one of her favorite nymphs, whose beauty could only be equalled by her virtue, implored the assistance of all the Olympian deities, to aid her in changing it into a flower, which all others should acknowledge to be their queen. Apollo lent the vivifying power of his beams, Bacchus bathed it in nectar, Vertumnus gave its perfume, Pomona its fruit, and Flora herself gave its diadem of flowers. A beetle is often represented on antique gems, as expiring, surrounded by roses ; and this is supposed to be an emblem of luxurious enervation ; the beetle being said to have such an antipathy to roses, that the smell of them will cause its death.

From the earliest period, the Greeks gave to the Rose the preference over all other plants, and distinguished it as the " Q,ueen of Flowers." In the fragments which still exist of Sappho, who lived about 600 years before the Christian era, there are lines in which the Rose is placed in the highest rank.

It is, however, in the ode which Anacreon has especially devoted to the praise of the Rose, that there seems a truly enthusiastic love for that beautiful floVer. Nothing which has been written on this subject, can equal the beauty of this little gem, even clothed, as it is, in the somewhat inflated style of the author. It will be found on another page.

Since Sappho and Anacreon, many poets, both ancient and modern, have celebrated, in their songs, the charming qualities of the Rose. They have chosen it for an emblem of the most beautiful things — for the most pleasing and delightful comparisons ; and they have united in making it the symbol of innocence, of modesty, of grace, and of beauty. Quite a volume might be collected of all the verses and pleasant sentences that have been inspired by the elegant form of the Rose — its charming color and delightful fragrance. Some of these we have inserted in another part of the work. Nothing proves better the preference which has always existed for this beautiful flower, than the thoughts expressed by Sappho. Anacreon and the other poets of antiquity have since imitated her in almost every language, and the lines of these have sacrificed nothing of her elegance and freshness.

The poets and writers of the East have abundantly celebrated, in their works, the beauties of the Rose. According to the Boun- Dehesch, of Zoroaster, the stem of that flower was free from thorns until the entrance of Ahrimanus (the evil one) into the world ; the universal spirit of evil, according to their doctrine, affecting not only man but also the inferior animals, and even the very trees and plants. The same work states, that every flower is appropriated to a particular angel, and that the hundred-leaved Rose (Rosa centifolia) is consecrated to an archangel of the highest order. Basil, one of the early fathers, had undoubtedly seen these passages in oriental works, when he related that at the creation of the world the Rose had no thorns, and that they were gradually furnished with them as mankind became more corrupt.

The oriental writers also represent the nightingale as sighing for the love of the Rose ; and many beautiful stanzas have arisen from this fable. According to the Language of Flowers ; "In a curious fragment by tlie celebrated Persian poet Attar, entitled Bulhul Nufjieh, the Book of the Nightingale, all the birds appear before Solomon, and charge the nightingale with disturbing their rest, by the broken and plaintive strains which he warbles forth all the night, in a sort of frenzy and intoxication. The nightingale is summoned, questioned, and acquitted by the wise king ; because the bird assures him, that his vehement love for the Rose drives him to distraction, and causes him to break forth into those passionate and touching complaints which are laid to his charge." The same work also mentions that the Persians assert, that " the nightingale, in spring, flutters around the rose-bushes, uttering incessant complaints, till, overpowered by the strong scent, he drops stupified on the ground. The invention of these fables, extravagant as they are, evince the Persian fondness for this beautiful flower. The Ghebers, or Persian fire-worshipers, believe that Abraham was throwi\ into the fire by Nimrod, when the flame turned into a bed of roses. According to the Hindoo mythology. Pagoda Siri, one of the wives of Vishnu, was found in a rose.

Among the many stories of roses in the East, is that of the philosopher Zeb, related by Madame de Latour. " There was at Amadan, in Persia, an academy with the following rules : Its members must think much, write a little, and be as silent as possible. The learned Zeb, celebrated through all the East, learning that there was a vacancy in the academy, endeavored to obtain it, but arrived, unfortunately, too late. The academy was annoyed because it had given to power what belonged to merit, and the president, not knowing how to express a refusal without mortifying the assembly, caused a cup to be brought, which he filled so full of water, that a single drop more would have made it run over. The wise philosopher understood, by that emblem, that no place remained for him, and was retiring sadly, when he perceived a rose petal at his feet. At that sight, he took courage, seized the petal, and placed it so delicately on the water, that not a single drop escaped. At this ingenious allusion to the rules of

12 EARLY HISTORY OP THE ROSE.

the academy, the whole assembly clapped their hands, and the philosopher was admitted as a member." Madame de Genlis relates very nearly the same anecdote, but attributes it to Abdulkadri, a person celebrated among the Turks, who was desirous of residing at Babylon, where they were unwilling to receive him.

The Turks themselves, matter of fact as they are, have also seen something marvelous in the beautiful and vivid tints which the hand of nature has painted on the corolla of the Rose ; but their imagination, less glowing than that of the Greeks, furnished them an idea more singular than pleasing. They suppose that the Rose owed its origin to the perspiration which fell from Mahomet ; for which reason they never tread upon a rose-leaf, or suffer one to lie on the ground.

Meshilu, the Turkish poet, speaks of " a pavilion of roses, as the seat of pleasure raised in the garden ;" of " roses like the bright cheeks of beautiful maidens;" of the time when "the plants were sick, and the rose-bud hung its thoughtful head on its bosom ;" and of the " dew, as it falls, being changed into rose-water." They also sculpture a rose on the tomb-stone of a female ,who dies unmarried.

The early Roman Catholics have made the Rose the subject of various miraculous events — one of which is attributed to the canonized Elizabeth, Q,ueen of Hungary. As the French author, Montalembert, relates it in his history of that queen, Elizabeth loved to carry to the poor herself, by stealth, not only money, but even food and other things which she had provided for them. She went thus loaded and on foot, by the steep and hidden paths which led from the chateau to the town, and to the cottages in the neighboring valleys. One day, when, accompanied by her favority maid, she was descending by a rough and scarcely visible path, carrying under her cloak some bread, meat, eggs, and other food, for distribution among the poor, she was suddenly met by her husband, who was returning from the chase. Astonished to see her thus bending under the weight of her burden, he said to her, " Let me see what you are carrying." At the same time he threw open the cloak, which she held, with terror, to her breast, but found, as the legend says, nothing there but some white and red roses, the most beautiful he had ever seen.

D'Orbessan, in his work on the Rose, states that, in the church of Sainte-Luzanne, at Rome, is a mosaic of the time of Charlemagne, in which that prince is represented in a square mantle, and on his knees, while St. Peter is placing in his hands a standard covered with roses.

Michaud, in his Biographie Universelle^ speaks of Clemence Isaure, a French lady, who lived in the latter part of the 15th century. She bequeathed to the academy of Toulouse a large income, exclusively for the celebration of floral games, and for the distribution of five prizes for as many pieces of poetry. The prizes consisted of an amaranth and rose of gold, and of a violet, marigold, and lily, of silver. The will also required that every three years, on the day of the commencement of the floral games, among other ceremonies to be observed, the members of the academy should visit and spread flowers upon her tomb. Ronsard, the French poet, having gained the first prize in the floral games, received, in place of the accustomed rose, a silver image of Minerva. Mary, Q-ueen of Scots, was so much delighted with Ronsard's beautiful poetry on the Rose, that she sent him a magnificent rose of silver, valued at £500, with this inscription : — " A Ronsard. VApollon de la source des Muses."

Chapter II. Luxurious Use Of The Rose

HE arfcients possessed, at a very early period^ IY\ the luxury of roses, and the Romans brought it to perfection by covering with beds of these flowers the couches whereon their guests were placed, and even the tables which were used for banquets ;' while some emperors went so far as to scatter them in the halls of their palace. At Rome, they were, at one time, brought from Egypt, in that part of the year when Italy could not produce them ; but afterwards, in order to render these luxuries more easily attainable during the winter, by the leaders of the ton in that capital city of the world's empire, their gardeners found the means of producing, in green-houses warmed by means of pipes filled with hot water, an artificial temperature, which kept roses and lilies in bloom until the last of the year. Seneca declaimed, with a show of ridicule, against these improvements ;* but, without being discouraged by the reasoning of the philosophery the Romans carried their green-houses to such perfection, that, at length, during the reign of Domitian, when the Egyptians

LUXURIOUS USE OF THE ROSE. 15

thought to pay him a splendid compliment in honor of his birthday, by sending him roses in the midst of winter, their present excited nothing but ridicule and disdain, so abundant lied winter roses become at Rome, by the efforts of art. Few of the Latin poets have been more celebrated for their epigrammatic wit than Martial ; and his epigram " to Cassar, on the Winter Roses," serves to show that the culture of roses at Rome was carried to such perfection, as to make the attempts of foreign competitors subjects only for ridicule.^

"The ambitious inhabitants of the land watered by the Nile have sent thee, O Caesar, the roses of winter, as a present valuable for its novelty. But the boatman of Memphis will laugh at the gardens of Pharaoh as soon as he has taken one step in thy capital city — for the spring, in its charms, and the flowers in their fragrance and beauty, equal the glory of the fields of Psestum. Wherever he wanders or casts his eyes, every street is brilliant with garlands of roses. And thou, O Nile ! must now, yield to the fogs of Rome. Send us thy harvests, and we will send thee roses."

By this passage it is evident that the cultivation of roses, among the ancients, was much farther advanced than is generally supposed. In another epigram Martial speaks again of roses, which were formerly seen only in the spring, but which in his time had become common durinsr the winter. We are

Martial, lib. vi.. epig.

16 LUXURIOUS USE OF THE ROSE.

also but copyists of the Romans, in the cultivation of flowers in windows ; for vases of every style of beauty, and filled with roses, were a frequent ornament of their windows. Martial says that a miserly patron had made him a present of a very small estate, and adds that he has a much better country place in his window. Much that illustrates the use w^iich the ancients made of roses in their ceremonies, in their festivals, and in their domestic life, may be found in various authors, evincing still more how very common the use of them had become. Florus relates that Antiochus, king of Syria, being encamped in the island of Euboea, under woven tents of silk and gold, was not only accompanied by a band of musicians, but that he might yet more enhance his pleasures, he wished to procure roses ; and although it was in the midst of winter, he caused them to be collected from every quarter.

The gallants of Rome were in the habit of presenting their favorite damsels with the first roses that appeared in spring; and " Mea rosa " was an affectionate expression they often used to their betrothed.

We frequently find in old Latin authors, an entire abandonment to pleasure and excessive luxury signified by such expressions as, living in the midst of roses, sleeping on 7'oses, &c. (Vivere in rosa, dormire in rosa.)

Seneca speaks of Smyndiride, the most wealthy and voluptuous of the Sybarites, w^ho could not sleep if a single one of the rose-petals with which his bed was spread, happened to be curled.

Cicero, in his ^^ de finibusj'^ alludes to the custom which prevailed at Rome at that time, of reclining at the table on couches covered with roses ; and comparing the happiness which virtue gives, to the pleasures of luxury, says that " B-egulus, in his chains, was more happy than Thorius drinking on a couch of roses and livino" in such a manner that one could scarcely imagine any rare and exquisite pleasure of which he did not partake."

The same author, in his celebrated speech against Verres, the greatest extortioner whose name is recorded in history, reproached him not only with the outrageous robberies and cruelties which

LUXURIOUS USE OF THE ROSE. 17

he committed during the three years that he was governor of Sicily, but yet more with his effeminacy and licentiousness. " When spring commenced," said the Roman orator, " that season was not announced to him by the return of Zephyr, nor by the appearance of any heavenly sign ; it was not until he had seen the roses bloom, that spring was visible to his voluptuous eye. In the voyages which he made across the province, he was accustomed, after the example of the kings of Bithynia, to be carried in a litter borne by eight men, in which he reposed, softly extended upon cushions made of transparent material and filled with roses of Malta, having in his hand a net of the finest linen, and equally full of these flowers, whose fragrance incessantly gratified his eager nostrils."

Laiinus Pacatus, in his eulogium on the Emperor Theodosius, inveighs against the luxury of the Romans, whose sensual desires, he says, were not satisfied until they had reversed the order of the seasons, and produced roses in the winter season to crown their cup of wine, and until their Falernian during the summer, was cooled in large vessels filled with ice. The forcing of roses in winter, is no longer extensively practiced in Rome ; but during the summer they are more abundant, and we recollect being much struck with admiration of some beautiful hedges of the Daily rose in the villas near Rome.

After reading the preceding statements of the abundance of roses among the ancient Romans, it is with some surprise that we recollect the great scarcity of that flower during the gayest and most animated festival of the modern Romans — the Carnival. As we slowly walked along the Corso, submitting with as quiet a grace as possible to the various fantastic tricks of the masqued figures around us, and occasionally pelted with handsful of sugar-plums from the windows, or passing carriages, we looked in vain for roses or camellias in the numerous bouquets that were cleaving the air around us. Little bouquets of violets were numerous, and the air was thick with them, as our eyes, nose, and mouth could bear striking witness ; and we recollect, too, the contemptuous curl of the lip, and rush of the aris-

2*

18 LUXURIOUS USE OP THE ROSE.

tocratic blood into the face of a fair English girl, in one of the carriages, whose blue eyes had been nearly closed by an awkward cast of one of these petits bouquets from the hand of a plebian performer. But we only recollect catching a glimpse now and then, of a single rose or camellia, skilfully passed by a cavalier below, into the hands of some dark-eyed beauty in the balconies above ; the bright sparkle of whose eye convinced us that the single flower was of value, and a mark of especial regard. The Rose appeared to be valued as some rare exotic, and not to be idly bestowed where there was small probability of its due appreciation ; it was indeed a " rara flora in urbe,^' and quite superseded by the very pretty and abundant violets.

The modern Romans have not only lost .many of the good qualities of their early ancestors, but the}'- have also escaped much of the effeminate softness which characterized the Romans under some of the later emperors ; and as belonging to this state of luxury, the cultivation of the Rose has in modern times been much neglected. The homage of the Romans is now reserved for art, and the beautiful products of nature are in their opinion, worthy only of secondary consideration. The Rose is now mostly confined in that city to the residences of the wealthier classes, and can scarcely be said to have resumed its old place in Roman esteem, until it is again a favorite with the mass of the people.

When Cleopatra went into Cilicia to meet Marc Antony, she gave him for several successive days festivals, in which she displayed a truly royal magnificence. She caused to be placed in the banqueting hall twelve couches, each of which would hold three guests. The walls were covered with purple tapestry, interwoven with gold ; all the vases were of gold, admirably executed and enriched with precious stones.

On the fourth day, the queen carried her sumptuousness so far as to pay a talent (about six hundred dollars) for a quantity of roses, with which she caused the floor of the hall to be covered to the depth of eighteen inches. These flowers were retained by a very fine net, in order that the guests might walk over them.

LUXURIOUS USE OP THE ROSE. ' 19

In connection with this fact, it is curious to notice the following anecdote related by Pliny.

"At the time that Marc Antony was preparing for the battle of Actium, he felt suspicious of Cleopatra, and made her taste of all the dishes which were served up to him, she all the while ridiculing his fears.

" One day, while giving him a banquet, she placed on his

head a. crown, bordered with poisoned flowers ; and when

Antony was heated with wine, she proposed that each should

drink his crown. He at once consented, and hasteninsf to

• . . . .

tear off his crown, placed it in his cup and was about to drink it,

when the queen stopped him, saying: 'Why do you suspect me of deadly intentions towards your person ? if it were possible to live without you, see how easy I could send you from the world.' At the same time having ordered a criminal from prison, she gave him the cup to drink, and he expired in a moment."

At a later period, and after the loss of the battle of Actium, Antony, not wishing to survive his defeat, from fear of falling into the hands of Augustus, thrust himself through with his sword, and requested Cleopatra to scatter perfumes over his tomb and to cover it with roses.

The greatest profusion of roses mentioned in ancient history, and which is scarcely credible, is that which Suetonius attributes to Nero. This author says, that at a fete which the emperor gave in the gulf of Baiae, when inns were established on the banks, and ladies of distinction played the part of hostesses, the expense incurred for roses alone, was more than four millions of sesterces — about $100,000. Since Nero, many of his successors have nearly equalled him in prodigal enjoyment of the luxury of roses. Lucius Aurelius Verus, whose licentiousness and destitution of every manly quality equalled that of the worst emperors, but whom no one reproaches with any act of cruelty, was the inventor of a new species of luxury. He had a couch made, on which were four raised cushions, closed on all sides by a very thin net, and filled with leaves of roses. Heliogabalus,

20 LUXURIOUS USE OP THE ROSE.

celebrated for luxury and vice of every kind, caused roses to be crushed with the kernels of the pine (Pinus maritima), in order to increase the perfume. The same emperor caused roses to be scattered over the couches, the halls, and even the porticoes of the palace, and he renewed this profusion with flowers of every kind : lilies, violets, hyacinths, narcissus, &c. Gallien, another equally cruel and luxurious prince, lay, according to some authors, under arbors of roses ; and, according to others, on beds covered with these flowers. And finally, Carrius, another licentious and prodigal emperor, who reigned only a few months, caused roses to be scattered over the chambers of his palace, and on the couches upon w^hich were placed his guests.

Chapter III

THE ROSE, IN CEREMONIES AND FESTIVALS, AND IN THE ADORN- MENT OP BURIAL PLACES.

MONG the ancients, the Rose was conspicuous in all the sacred ceremonies, and in public and private fetes. The Greeks and the Romans surrounded tlie statues of Venus, of Hebe, and of Flora, with garlands of roses. They were lavish of these flowers at the festivals of Flora ; in those of Juno, at Argos, the statue of the Olympian Queen was crowned with lilies and roses. In the festivals of Hymen, at Athens, the youth of both sexes, crowned with roses and adorned with flowers, mingled in dances which were intended to represent the innocence of primeval times. At Rome, in the public rejoicings, they sometimes stiewed the streets with roses and other flowers. It is thus that Lucretius gives a description of the man ner in which was celebrated the festivals of Cybele.^