A progressive grammar of the English tongue : based on the results of modern philology

Front matter

e-

LIBRARY

OF THK

Preface

THE present work on English Grammar forms a part of Harper's Language-Series.

While it is the most advanced book of that series, it at the same time furnishes by itself a complete grammatical course for ungraded and for private schools.

Learning our mother tongue ought to be the most interesting of school studies ; and yet, for nearly a century, countless numbers of technical grammars, all modeled after Lindley Murray, have been, by turns, the object of aversion to successive generations of school children. This is not to be wondered at. The traditional rules of syntax, and the time -honored nomenclature of etymology, have come down to us a heritage from the elder grammarians, who, writing before philology became a science, put forth all their strength in a too successful endeavor to subject our simple and peculiar English speech to the vassalage of Latin forms.

The introduction, some thirty years ago, of the method

IV PREFACE.

of Sentential ANALYSIS, devised by the German philologist Becker, and adapted to American school use in the meritorious works of Professor Greene and others, marks the only considerable innovation, in this country, on the Murray system. The new doctrine excited great interest, and soon ran into a wide currency. When we consider, however, that Analysis is the syntax of English to no greater a degree than it is the syntax of any other speech ; that it is, in point of fact, general or universal syntax, it is not strange that it failed to realize the brilliant results claimed for it by its early champions, and that of late it is falling out of favor with judicious teachers, who find that Analysis, while a curious and interesting study, and not without its value as a means of mental discipline, fails to accomplish the professed design of English grammar, which design now is, and always has been, to teach " the art of speaking and writing the English language with propriety."

In the mean time, in the results of modern linguistic study and research, materials have been rapidly accumulating, from which methods of treatment ought to be developed very different from the complications of Anglo- Latin syntax on the one hand, and from the abstractions of Analysis on the other. If the present work shall be found to possess any merit, that merit will be due to the fact that modern philology has made English grammar possible by showing us what the English speech really is.

In this text-book, of the f our mediaeval " branches" of grammar, two have been lopped off — to wit, Orthography and Prosody. These do not properly belong to English grammar, and, indeed, they oame into the grammatical horn-books at a period when the awful mysteries of "grammairie" were ranked with the black arts. This exclusion

PREFACE.

leaves for treatment the two proper departments of grammar— Etymology and Syntax ; to which have been added Analysis and Construction, and English Composition.

In the treatment of ETYMOLOGY three prominent points will be noticed :

1. A graduated method of unfolding the parts of speech, which are shown upon three successive and ascending planes. The parts of speech are first taken up and defined merely. Then all the parts of speech are again taken up, and their subdivisions set forth. Lastly, all the parts of speech are taken up for the third time, and their inflections (if they possess any) are exhibited. The superiority of this plan of gradual approach over the old way of crowding evesy thing in a confused mass of bewildering nomenclature upon the child must be evident on even a cursory examination.

2. The brief, simple, and practical Definitions of the parts of speech and of grammatical terms in general. Grammarians, it is true, have been in the habit of magnifying the importance of abstract logical definitions, constructed with all the subtlety of the schoolmen. But is it not manifest that in an art like grammar the sole end of definition is to teacli uses f Now it is believed that the school-boy, by the aid of such simple (though, it is true, empirical) definitions as NOUNS NAME THINGS, VERBS MAKE STATEMENTS, will learn to detect nouns and verbs much sooner than he possibly could, were he ever so cunning in the repetition of wiredrawn definitions that, may, indeed, be theoretically exhaustive, but that are practically unintelligible.

3. The historical treatment of English inflections. The

V PREFACE.

modern study of Anglo-Saxon has thrown a flood of light on the forms and idioms of the English tongue. We obtain a satisfactory knowledge of our few fragments of English inflection only by learning how those .inflections arose. And here, again, grammarians are chargeable with having misapplied a great deal of ingenuity in trying to explain d priori (by pure reasoning and logic) facts that can be explained solely by the history of our speech. In the present text-book the aim has been to introduce the more illustrative points of English philology stripped of their scientific dress.

II

The treatment of Syntax in this text-book is probably what will most challenge attention.

In this division of the subject a marked departure irom the old methods was found absolutely indispensable. The time-honored twenty-six rules of Murray's Grammar are an incongruous assemblage of mixed definitions and abstractions, imitated from Latin syntax, and having as their chief end to teach grammatical parsing, which is simply grammar run to seed. How many a thoughtful teacher has been rudely disenchanted by discovering that a boy may glibly parse Young's Night Thoughts, or Pollock's Course of Time, strictly in accordance with the twenty-six rules, and yet be profoundly ignorant of practical English !

The author bases his treatment of English syntax on the theory that the object of the school study of grammar is to furnish school-boys and school-girls with such an available outfit of knowledge in applied syntax as shall give them a fair mastery of the USE of English in speaking and in writing. Accordingly, he found it needful to go through

PREFACE. Vii

syntax, and carefully to separate the abstract maxims used in disposing of words from those principles that are of prime importance, because they may be violated in the actual forms of words. This separation is marked by dividing the syntax of each part of speech into —

1. How to dispose of the part of speech.

2. Its practical syntax.

Of the latter — PRACTICAL SYNTAX — the treatment has been made quite full, the author feeling that he could not conscientiously avoid fairly meeting the numerous difficulties that arise in writing modern English. At the same time, as the principles are developed inductively, from copious illustrations very fully explained, it is believed that they will find firm lodgment in the intelligence, and, by consequence, in the memory of the pupil.

III

A clear system of Sentential Analysis, freed from needless complications and refinements, has been reduced to its appropriate place and space in the grammatical course. Moreover, side by side with the principles of Analysis will be found the application of those principles to Synthesis, or Construction. The method of sentence - building here given has stood the test of the class-room, and the exercises will be found both to make Analysis itself intelligible and to lay the foundation for Composition.

IV

As one of the professed objects of English Grammar is to teach the art of writing good English, the last division of the book comprises practical exercises in Composition-

Vlll PREFACE.

writing. Here an effort has been made to bring the directions and the exercises down to the average capacity of the children in the public schools. The attention of teachers is particularly called to this part of the book.

There seems to be a general desire among thinking teachers for a clearer, simpler, and more objective method of teaching English than that in common use — for a book more in harmony with modern English philology. It will be for the great body of professional men and women, whose plaint at the fruitlessness of old-time grammar has filled the educational journals during the last decade, to say whether this text-book supplies the desideratum ; but the author at least ventures to bespeak for it the favorable presumption that attaches to the newest treatment of a progressive science.

"WILLIAM S WINTON.

The acknowledgments of the author are especially due to the following works :

Dalgleish's English Grammar : Edinburgh. [The simple method of defining the Parts of Speech found in this work has been, in the main, followed in the present text-book.]

Ernest Adams's Elements of the English Language : London.

Angus's Hand-book of English : London.

Morrell's Grammar and Analysis: London.

Higginson's English Grammar : London.

Collier's Grammar of the English Language : Edinburgh.

Chambers's English Grammar : Edinburgh.

Bain's English Grammar : London.

Marsh's Lectures : New York.

Contents

EXPLANATORY 1

PAET I.

ETYMOLOGY.

CHAPTER L

Classification 5

CHAPTER II. Subdivisions of the Parts of Speech n

1. THE NOUN 11

2. THE PRONOUN 13

4. THE VERB 20

6. THE PREPOSITION 26

7. THE CONJUNCTION 27

CHAPTER III. Inflection so

1. THE NOUN 30

I. Number 30

II. Case 34

III. Gender 37

2. THE PRONOUN 39

I. Personal Pronouns 39

II. Relative Pronouns 41

III. Demonstrative Pronouns 41

5. THE VERB 45

I. Tense 45

II. Person and Number 46

III. Mood 47

IV. Voice 51

V. Conjugation 51

VI. Forms of the Tenses 56

VII. Irregular Verbs 60

X CONTENTS.

PAKT II.

SYNTAX.

Pape

1. Syntax of the Verb 74

I. How to Parse the Verb 74

II. Practical Syntax of the Verb 76

2. Syntax of the Noun 84

I. How to Dispose of Nouns 84

II. Practical Syntax of the Noun 88

3. Syntax of the Pronoun 91

I. How to Dispose of Pronouns 91

II. Practical Syntax of the Pronoun 91

4. Syntax of Adjectives 104

I. How to Parse Adjectives 104

II. Practical Syntax of the Adjective 105

5. Syntax of the Adverb 108

I. How to Parse Adverbs 108

II. Practical Syntax of the Adverb 109

6. Syntax of Prepositions us

I. How to Parse Prepositions 115

II. Practical Syntax of the Preposition 116

7. Syntax of the Conjunction 1 19

I. How to Parse Conjunctions 119

II. Practical Syntax of the Conjunction 120

8. Syntax of Moods and Tenses 124

CHAPTER I. Elements of a Sentence 1 36

What the Subject may be 137

What the Predicate may be 138

How the Subject may be enlarged 1 39

Expansion of the Subject 140

How the Predicate may be enlarged 141

Expansion of the Predicate 142

CHAPTER II. Analysis of Sentences 143

1 . The Simple Sentence analyzed 143

2. Sentence-Building — the Simple Sentence 145

CONTENTS. Xi

CHAPTER III. Paf,a

1. The Complex Sentence analyzed 149

2. Sentence-Building — the Complex Sentence 156

CHAPTER IV. The Compound Sentence IGO

1. The Compound Sentence analyzed 160

2. Sentence-Building — the Compound Sentence 165

PAET IY.

ENGLISH COMPOSITION.

1. Suggestions for Teachers 179

2. Suggestions for Pupils 180

3. Review of Capitalizing and Punctuation 182

4. Exercises in Composition- Writing 184

5. Abstracts from Memory 188

6. Letter- Writing 190

7. Turning Poetry into Prose 193

Appendix

Conjugation of a Regular Verb 199

Synopsis of the Verb Love 201

Synopsis of a Verb conjugated 202

Anglo-Saxon Paradigms 203

Saxon Verb 205

Comparative Table of Tenses in English, Latin, French, and German. . 206

The Infinitive or Verbal in -ing 207

ENGLISH GKAMMAK.

NOTE FOR TEACHERS. — It is not intended that this grammar should be uniformly got by rote. Some parts, of course, must be so learned ; but grammar in general is to be learned by mind.

1. The English language is called our mother tongue because it is our native speech. We begin to learn it as soon as we begin to talk.

2. We gain our first knowledge of our language by hearing those around us speak it. This may be called natural knowledge of our language.

3. The pupils who begin to study this book already know a good deal about English. They have a stock of words, and know how to put these words together into sentences. But they can not be sure that they are using words properly and framing sentences correctly unless they know the rules of the English language. A knowledge based on these rules may be called a grammatical knowledge of our tongue.

4. The study that teaches the correct use of the English language in speaking and in writing is called English Grammar.

5. All language is composed of sentences, and all sentences are made up of words. Hence arise the two grand divisions of English Grammar :

I. Etymology — treating of words by themselves. II. Syntax — treating of words combined in sentences.

NOTE. — The old division of English Grammar was into " orthography, etymology, syntax, and prosody." But orthography, which is a matter rather of rote than of rule, belongs to the speller and the dictionary, while prosody is pronerly a part of English composition.

A

2 EXPLANATORY.

6. Etymology treats of—

I. The arrangement of words in classes; and —

II. The changes that words undergo to express different relations.

The first may be called classification; the second, inflection.

It should be distinctly understood that etymology treats of the grammatical changes of words, and of no other kind of change. It has nothing to do with the derivation of words : that belongs to historical etymology, in contradistinction to grammatical etymology. Thus the change from * sweet' to * sweeter' is a matter of grammatical etymology ; the change from ' farm' to ' farmer' is a matter of historical etymology.

7. Words are arranged in classes, according to their use in sentences. Thus —

All words used to make statements are put in one class. All words used to name things, in another.

All words used to describe things, in a third.

8. The several classes of words are called Parts of Speech.

9. Now, let us see what is meant by inflection. Take the naming word river and the asserting word flows, and you may make the sentence ' The river flows.' But suppose you wish to denote more than one river, you change the form of the word to rivers. The sentence now becomes 'The rivers flow.' And here, again, you have changed the form of the wordj#oi0s by leaving off s.

10. Suppose you wish to state, not that the river is now flowing, but that it was flowing at some time in the past : you say 'The river flowed.' Here you have changed the form of flow by adding ed.

11. Take the describing word deep and the naming word river. Now suppose you wish to state that a certain other river had greater depth than one just named : you will say ; A deeper river.' Here you have changed the form of the word ' deep' by adding er. These are examples of the kind of changes in words that etymology treats of, and these changes are called inflections.

12. Syntax treats of the structure of sentences, with reference to the agreement, government, and arrangement of words.

EXPLANATORY. 3

ILLUSTRATION OF AGREEMENT.

(1.) If we say 'The mountains is high,' wo speak ungrammatically ; that is, we violate syntax, because — for a reason which the pupil will learn hereafter — the form of the word ' is' does not agree with the word l mountains.'

ILLUSTRATION OF GOVERNMENT.

(2.) Take the two sentences, * They were led on by Mammon;' 'Mammon led them on.' The word them in the second sentence is a change of form of the word they. Why does it take this form ? Because — for a reason to be learned hereafter — the word * led' compels it to take that form, governs it in that form.

ILLUSTRATION OF ARRANGEMENT.

(3.) The sentence, ' Wanted, a young man to take care of horses of a Christian disposition,' is an absurdity, because the faulty placing of the words ' of a Christian disposition' makes them qualify horses instead of man, which they were meant to qualify. The arrangement is wrong.

13. Whenever we express a thought we use a sentence. Every sentence must have a subject and a predicate.

'Beautiful flowers in the garden/ These words do not make a, sentence, because they do not express a thought. But when we say l Beautiful flowers bloom in the garden' we express a thought, and the assemblage of words used to express it is a sentence.

14. The Predicate is the particular part of a sentence that makes a statement.

The Subject is that about which a statement is made.

1 Haste makes waste' is a sentence. ' Haste' is the subject ; l makes waste' is the predicate.

15. Sometimes a great many words are used in expressing the subject and the predicate, but there will always be some one term that represents the thing which we are speaking about, and some other term that makes the statement.

SUBJECT. PREDICATE.

The young and gallant Sydney died on the field of battle at Zutphen.

The person we are speaking about in this sentence is marked by the term or name * Sydney,' but several other words, the, young, gallant, are used along with that term to describe it. What we say about * Sydney* is mainly expressed by the term * died, 'but other words are connected with it to show where he died.

4 EXPLANATOEY.

16. The particular term that forms the subject will always be what is called a noun, or something having the force of a noun ; the particular term forming the predicate will always be what is called a verb.

17. The noun and the verb are the two principal Parts of Speech. They make the frame-work of every sentence.

18. The various sorts of words used with the subject and with the predicate make up the other Parts of Speech, and these are fully explained in the next chapter, on Classification.

The English Language has been growing for more than a thousand years. It is called 'English' from the word Angles, the name of a tribe of Germans who, with the Saxons and other German tribes, settled in Britain about the 5th century A.D. The language that was spoken by this people is called Anglo-Saxon. It was quite unlike our present English, but it is the basis of our speeeh, furnishing the larger part (nearly three quarters, perhaps) of our customary words, and the grammatical frame-work of the whole language. Anglo-Saxon was largely influenced by the French language, spoken by the Normans, who conquered England in the llth century. In the 15th and 16th centuries it received a very great number of words from Latin and from Greek, and subsequently from other sources. Thus we see that the English language is a combination of many tongues. By the time of Shakspeare, in the 16th century, it had grown into nearly its present form. English is a noble language. It is now spoken by nearly one hundred millions of people. It is the language of the United States and of British America, of Great Britain and Ireland, of Australia and New Zealand, and it is spoken in South Africa, in India, and elsewhere. To have a free and accurate use of it is one of the finest of accomplishments, and such a use the study of Grammar should give.

Part I. Etymology

19. Etymology treats of words individually considered, and consists of two parts — classification and inflection.

Chapter I. Classification

THE PARTS OF SPEECH DEFINED.

20. Words are arranged in classes, according to the functions they perform, or the work they do, in sentences.

The English Language is made up of a stock of words called its vocabulary. A complete English dictionary contains upward of 100,000 words ; nevertheless, it is found that the whole stock of English words can be assorted into a very few kinds. Thus all words used to assert are put in one class ,• all words used to name things, in another ; all words used to describe things, in a third, etc.

21. There are eight of these classes of words, and they arc called The Parts of Speech.

22. The Parts of Speech are:

1. THE NOUN. 5. THE ADVERB.

2. THE PRONOUN. 6. THE PREPOSITION.

3. THE ADJECTIVE. 7. THE CONJUNCTION.

4. THE VERB. 8. THE INTERJECTION.

23. DEFINITION I. Nouns name things; as, A violet 'neath a mossy stone.

Noun, from the Latin nomen, a name, is the name of any thing that we can perceive by means of (1) the senses or of (2) the understanding. Every thing we think about or speak about — person, place, object, action, or thought — must have a name, and every name is a NOUN.

Exercise 1.

Pick out the NOUNS.

1. The snow was deep on the hills last week. 2. The sun rises in the morning and sets in the evening. 3. The battle of Gettysburg was fought in Pennsylvania. 4. Wellington defeated Napoleon at Waterloo. 5. Skating on the ice is fine fan for boys. 6. Warren was noted for the sweetness of his disposition. 7. Knowledge is power.

24. DEFINITION II. Pronouns stand for Nouns; as, Charles went to Paris with his mother, and he came back without her.

(a) The word Pronoun (Latin pro and nomen) means for or instead of a, noun. The use of pronouns is to prevent the repetition of nouns, and to make speaking and writing more rapid and less encumbered with words.

(6) The principal pronouns are : /, Ybw, He, She, It, We, They, My, Your, His, Her, Its, Him, Our, Us, Their, Them, Who, Whose, Whom, Which, That, What.

Exercise 2.

A.

Pick out the PEONOUNS, and say for what Nouns they stand.

I . The Arabs are able to catch the ostrich only when they have tired it some days by constant chase. 2. Men find plants where they least expect them. 3. A boy who is always grumbling will lose the friends that he has.

4. I hope you will come to see us soon. 5. Who goes there ?

B.

Write PRONOUNS for the NOUNS printed in Italics.

' 1. The master told the two brothers to tell the two brothers1 father that the father must get the two brothers new books. 2. The king took the hand of the king's earliest friend, and pressed the hand to the king's heart. 3. Philip's mother said to Philip, ' Philip must keep Philip's clothes in better order.'

5. When the ostrich's pursuer approaches the ostrich, the ostrich sticks the ostrich's head in the sand.

25. DEFINITION HI. Adjectives describe or limit things; as, The early primrose, The distant hills, The three swans, The open country.

The literal meaning of Adjective (Latin adjectus, thrown, placed, or put to) is placed alongside of. Adjectives are placed alongside of nouns for the purpose of describing or qualifying them, or of showing the extent of their signification.

Exercise 3.

Pick out the ADJECTIVES, and name the things they describe

or limit.

1. Silk-worms are curious and industrious little creatures. 2. Good books deserve a careful perusal. 3. They called him a true friend and a noble foe. 4. Many ships were lost in the storm. 5. There are seven days in a week.

6. The long, long, weary days are past.

7. The way was long, the wind was cold, The minstrel was infirm and old.

26. DEFINITION IV. Verbs make statements ; as, The wild cataract leaps in glory ; The revolution of the earth on its axis causes the succession of day and night.

THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 7

(a) The essential idea of the Verb is that of asserting or telling. The term Verb (Latin verbum, a word) means word, and this part of speech is so called because it is the word, the word which gives life to a sentence ; in fact, no group of words can make a sentence unless one of the words is a verb.

(b) The definition of Verb may be expanded thus; "A verb is a word by means of which we assert (1) what any thing does; (2) what is done-to it ; or (3) in what state it exists."

A.

Pick out the YEEBS, and tell their SUBJECTS.

My father left me a considerable estate, the best part of which I spent in debauchery during my youth. But I perceived my error, and reflected that riches are perishable, and are quickly consumed by such ill managers as myself. I further considered that by my irregular way of living I wretchedly misspent my time, which is the most valuable thing in the world. I remembered the saying of the great Solomon, which I had frequently heard from my father, " that death is more tolerable than poverty." Being struck with these reflections, I collected the remains of my furniture, and sold all my patrimony by public auction to the highest bidder. Then I entered into a contract with some merchants who traded by sea ; I took the advice of such as I thought most capable to give it to me, and, resolving to improve what money I had, I went to Balsora, and embarked with several merchants on board a ship which we jointly fitted out. — Arabian Nights.

B.

The red light shone through the open door,

From the round, declining sun, And fantastic shadows all about

On the dusty floor were thrown, As the factory clock tolled the hour of five,

And the school was almost done.

The mingled hum of the busy town

Rose faint from the lower plain, And we saw the steeple over the trees,

With its motionless golden vane, And heard the cattle's musical low,

And the rustle of standing grain.

27. DEFINITION V. Adverbs describe actions and qualities; as, I have often climbed very steep hills.

(a) The literal meaning of Adverb is added to a verb, because the Adverb is most frequently the adjunct of a verb.

(6) Adverbs describe actions by showing how, when, or where they are done. For this purpose they are joined to verbs.

(c) Adverbs describe qualities by showing how much of them is possessed. For this purpose they are joined to adjectives ; as, Very little money.

(d) Adverbs also limit adverbial descriptions by snowing how much of them is applicable. For this purpose they are joined to other adverbs ; as, He speaks most fluently, and writes very correctly.

Exercise 5.

Pick out the ADVEKBS, and tell what words they describe.

Softly, peacefully lay her to rest,

Place the turf lightly on her young breast •,

Gently, solemnly bend o'er the bed

Where ye have pillowed thus softly her head.

When I was a little advanced into the island I saw an old man, who appeared very weak and feeble. He sat upon the bank of a stream, and at first I took him to be one who had been shipwrecked like myself. I quickly went towards him, and respectfully saluted him, but he only bowed his head. I asked him what he did there, but instead of answering me he made a sign for me to take him up on my back and carry him over the brook. I believed him really to stand in need of my help, so I took him up on my back, and, having soon carried him over, I bid him get down ; but, instead of that (which I laugh at heartily every time I think of it), the old man clasped his legs nimbly about my neck, and held my throat so tightly that I really thought he would* have strangled me. — Arabian Nights.

28. DEFINITION VI. Prepositions link Nouns and Pronouns to other words.

She is far jfrom the land where her young hero sleeps,

And lovers are round her sighing $ But coldly she turns from their gaze and weeps,

For her heart in his grave is lying.

(a) The preposition from links the noun land to the adverb /ar ; round links the pronoun her to sighing ; from links the noun gaze to turns ; in links the noun grave to is lying.

(I)} The word Preposition means a placing before (Latin pre and positio), and is so called because it is placed before a noun or a pronoun.

(c) Prepositions may be known by observing that they are closely attached to their nouns, and can not be removed from one part of the sentence to another except in connection with their nouns.

Exercise 6.

Pick out the PEEPOSITIONS, and tell what words they link.

I. Indian corn, when ripe in October, is gathered in the field by men who go from hill to hill with baskets into which they put the corn. 2. The creaking of the masts was frightful. 3. Vie gazed with inexpressible pleasure on those happy islands. 4. It happened one day, when going towards my boat, I was exceedingly surprised with the print of a man's naked foot on the shore. 5. Who is she that comes clothed in a robe of green ? 6. Heaven from all creatures hides the book of fate.

29. DEFINITION VII. Conjunctions connect words or statements; as, Cheerful he seemed, and gentleness he loved ; He chid their wanderings, but relieved their pain.

(a) Conjunctions often seem to join only two words when the connection is really between statements. Thus, in the sentence, Charles and Mary

THE PAETS OF SPEECH. 9

survived William, two statements are implied— Charles survived William, and, Mary survived William. In such a sentence as 4 three and two is five,' the and has not the function of a conjunction} it is here used as a preposition, and is equivalent to with.

(6) Conjunction means a joining together (Latin con and junctio).