Masterpieces of English literature : being typical selections of British and American authorship, from Shakespeare to the present time; together with definitions, notes, analyses, and glossary as an aid to systematic literary study

Front matter

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Preface

In the prescribed curricula of most high-schools, English literature and rhetoric find an important place. Yet, perhaps, no subjects are less satisfactorily taught. The study of English literature is, for the most part, confined to a cram on the personal biography of authors ; at the best, it is a reading about literature rather than a reading in literature. ' The study of rhetoric is, for the most part, confined to the learning of abstract definitions and principles. This is an acquisition certainly not to be undervalued ; for there is only a half-truth in Butler's famous aphorism, that

"All a rhetorician's rules Teach nothing but to name his tools."

Yet assuredly it is a barren knowledge, that of the " rhetorician's rules," unless these are seen and felt as they find spontaneous embodiment in the great creations of the masters of literary art.

This volume of " Masterpieces " is designed to occupy a place at the meeting-point of literature and rhetoric — to restore the twain to their natural and fruitful relationship. On the side of literature it is intended as the ac-

A iV PREFACE.

companiment of any class-book on that subject, furnishing a body of texts to be carefully read in connection with the biographical and critical study of particular authors, as pursued in the class-book. On the side of rhetoric it supplies a working outfit of definitions and principles, thus teaching the pupil to "name his tools;" and, further and more important, it applies the canons of the literary art to the analysis of the texts here presented. To this study I have given the name " Literary Analysis," as a conveniently elastic designation under which may be brought a great variety of exercises, grammatical and rhetorical, logical and etymological. The Literary Analysis is a new feature (at least I am unacquainted with any class-book of selections in which the kind of work here developed is given) ; and it is one from which most valuable results are anticipated. For surely such studies as are called for in the "Masterpieces" cannot fail to bring the pupil into close and friendly contact with those mighty minds whose " volumes paramount " constitute the literature of our language : so that he will no longer be reading merely about the masters, but reading the masters themselves — ascending with them into the "heaven of their invention," and feeding his soul on the divine bread of their high imaginings.

The choice of authors to be represented by typical selections in the " Masterpieces " has been no easy task, for in the splendid galaxy of our English and American literature are unnumbered stars.

" They are all fires, and every one doth shine." In the embarrassment of riches, this principle of selection

PREFACE. V

was laid down : that the authors chosen should not only be of the first rank, but that as far as possible they should represent epochs of literature, marked phases of style, distinctive contributions to literary method. Under the guidance of this rule forty masters have been here brought together. They all belong to the dii niajores, and sit serenely, each in his chair, on the topmost peaks of Olympus. The first name is that of Shakespeare ; the last that of Huxley. It is a significant conjuncture ; for in passing from the former to the latter, and saluting, as we go, the mighty shades of Milton, Dryden, Pope, Johnson, Burke, Burns, Scott, Macaulay, and their earlier and later peers, we complete that great cycle of evolution which connects the romanticism of the sixteenth century with the scientism of the nineteenth.

If the choice of authors was difficult, that of pieces to represent them was scarcely less so. Of the selections finally decided on, after much deliberation, this much, at least, may be said : that each has a claim founded on some peculiar power, pathos, beauty, or grandeur ; that each is " a gem of purest ray serene." It should also be added that care has been taken that, as far as possible, each selection should be a complete piece. Thus, of Milton, the two poems L Allegro and II Pcnscroso are given entire; Bacon is represented by two complete essays ; Addison's four best Sir Roger de Coverley papers are reproduced in full ; Pope moralizes the whole of his First Epistle of the Essay on Man ; Gray the whole of the Elegy ; and Goldsmith the whole of the Deserted Village ; and so on. And even in the case of authors who must necessarily be represented vi PREFACE.

by extracts, this at least has been sought : that each piece should have a certain unity, should show a beginning, middle, and end ; for unless a piece fill this requirement it is valueless as a study in literary art.

The attention of teachers is called to the fact that each author is introduced by an appropriate " Characterization " by a distinguished critic. Thus we have the merits of Shakespeare and Pope set forth by Dr. Johnson ; of Bunyan and Byron by Taine ; of Addison and Johnson by Macaulay ; of Goldsmith and Irving by Thackeray; of Thackeray by Dickens ; of Lamb by De Quincey ; of Burns by Carlyle ; of Carlyle and Wordsworth by Lowell ; of Bryant by Curtis ; of Holmes by Whittier. These fine appreciations will, it is thought, whet the pupil's appetite for the " feast of fat things " that awaits him in the authors themselves.

William Swinton.

New York, March, 1880.

*-,.* In the preparation of the " Notes," I have to acknowledge indebtedness to the Clarendon Press series of British classics, to the " Longer English Poems " of Hales, and to Rolfe's excellent editions of Shakespeare, Gray, and Goldsmith. Acknowledgments are also due to Messrs. Houghton, Osgood, & Co., G. P. Putnam's Sons, and Messrs. A. S. Barnes & Co., for kind permission to use selections from works published by them.

Contents

PAGE

Preface iii

Definitions xi

II. Style

15. Definition and Topics. — Style refers to the choice and arrangement of words, and may be defined as the pecuHar manner in which thought is expressed in language. It includes the following topics : I. The figures of speech.

II. The order of zvords.

III. The qualities of style.

I. FIGURES OF SPEECH.

16. A figure of speech is a deviation from the direct and literal mode of expression for greater effect. It is a form of speech artfully varied from the common usage.

17. Classification. — Figures of speech may be divided into three classes: I. Figures of relativity ; II. Figures oi gradation ; III. Figures oi emphasis. Under this head also may come the grammatical figures — ellipsis, enaliage, and pleonasm.

The principal figures of which mention is made in this book are as follows :

Figures of Relativity

ANTITHESIS.

SIMILE.

METAPHOR.

ALLEGORY.

APOSTROPHE.

VISION.

ALLUSION.

IRONY.

PERSONIFICATION. SARCASM.

SYNECDOCHE.

METONYMY.

EUPHEMISM.

LITOTES.

EPITHET.

r

Figures of Gradation \

CLIMAX.

HYPERBOLE.

I EPIZEUXIS.

Figures of Emphasis -I ANAPHORA.

I ALLITERATION.

ANACOLUTHON.

APOSIOPESIS.

DEFINITIONS. xvii

/. Figures of Relativity.

18. Antithesis is the statement of a contrast or opposition of thoughts and words, as —

" In peace there's nothing so becomes a man As mild behavior and humility ; But when the blast oiwar blows in our ears, Let us be tigers in our fierce deportment."

I. Oxymoron is an antithesis arising from the opposition of two contradictory terms, as '"a pious fraud" "O victorious defeat!"

II. Antimetabole is an antithesis in which the order of words is reversed in each member, as "A wit with dunces, and a dunce with wits."

III. Parison, or isocotott, is an antithesis in which clauses of similar construction follow in a series, word contrasting with word, phrase with phrase, etc., as " Homer was the greater genius, Virgil the better artist. In the one we most admire the man, in the other the work. Homer hurries us with a commanding impetuosity, Virgil leads us with an attractive majesty."

19. The simile, or comparison, is a figure that formahy Hkens one thing to another, as —

"Him, like the working bee in blossom dust. Blanched with his mill they found." — Tennyson.

20. The metaphor is a comparison imphed in the language used. It transfers a word from the object to which it hterally belongs, and applies it to another, as —

He bridles his anger.

" Athens, the eye of Greece, Mother of arts and eloquence." — Milton.

I. Metaphor dispenses with the connectives of comparison (like, as, etc.) used in the simile; and instead of stating that one thing resembles another, asserts that it is that other : thus —

Simile. He was as brave as a lion.

Metaphor. He was a lion in the combat.

II. Co7iversion into Simile. — Every metaphor may be converted into a simile, since every metaphor is a condensed simile. The process of expansion is a matter of tact rather than of rule ; but so far as any rule can be given, the following may be serviceable. First, it is to be noted that a simile is a kind of

MASTERPIECES OF ENGLISH LITERATURE.

rhetorical proposition, and must, when fully expressed, contain four terms. Now let the metaphor to be explained be " The ship ploughs the land." The following is the rule given by Seeley and Abbott (EngUsh Lesso7is, p. 131) : "It has been seen that the simile consists of four terms. In the third term of the simile stands the subject (' ship,' for instance) whose unknown predicated relation (' action of ship on water ') is to be explained. In the first term stands the corresponding subject (' plough '), whose predicated relation (' action on land ') is known. In the second term is the known relation. The fourth term is the unknown predicated relation, which requires explanation." Thus —

As the plough Known subject.

turns up the land.

Known predicateso the ship

Subject whose predicate is unknown.

acts on the sea.

Unknown predicate.

III. Mixed Metaphors. — It is a well-known canon of the metaphor that in the same metaphor figures should not be mixed. A familiar example is afforded by the following couplet from Addison :

" I bridle in my struggling Muse with pain, That longs to launch into a nobler strain."

Here the Muse, a goddess, is spoken of as being " bridled." Then, after raising the image of a horse, the author confounds us by viewing the Muse as a ship that longs to launch itself — and into a " strain !" Yet it is Addison who formulated this capital test of metaphors :

"Try and form a picture on them."

21. Allegory is a narrative with a figurative meaning, designed to convey instruction of a moral character. The Faerie Qiieene of Spenser and Bunyan's Pilgrinis P?'ogress are the greatest allegories in English literature.

Allegory has been called "a prolonged metaphor." Subjects remote from each other are brought into a similitude sustained throughout the details. Thus in Bunyan's immortal work the spiritual life or progress of a Christian is represented in detail by the story of a pilgrim in search of a distant country, which he reaches after many struggles and difficulties. In the Faerie Queefie the vices and virtues are personified, and made to act out their nature in a series of supposed adventures.

DEFINITIONS. xix

22. Personification is that figure in whicli some action or attribute of a living being is ascribed to an inanimate object, as —

"The mountains sing together, the hills rejoice and clap hands."

23. Apostrophe is that figure in which something absent

is addressed as though present. It is found chiefly in

poetry and oratory.

"Milton ! thou shouldst be living at this hour: England hath need of thee." — Wordsworth.

24. Vision is the narration of past or absent scenes as though actually occurring before us. It is allied to and is often found associated with apostrophe.

I. Byron's description of the Dying Gladiator—

" I see before me the gladiator lie," etc. —

is a familiar example of vision.

II. Metastasis. — Metastasis is a kind of description similar to vision : it involves a transition from the present to the future. A good example is found in the peroration of Webster's reply to Hayne. (See p. 345 of this book.)

25. Allusion is that figure by which some word or phrase calls to mind something not directly mentioned, as—

" It may be said of him that he came, he saw, he conquered."

The allusion here is to Caesar's famous despatch (" Veni, vidi, vici"), which it calls to mind.

Rhetoricians make various degrees of allusion, and among others direct allusion (as "The patience of Job is proverbial"); but, properly speaking, this is not allusion: it is mere reference. Allusion is always oblique. The following, in which Milton wishes to denote Moses, is an allusion in the strict sense :

"That shepherd who first taught the chosen seed 111 the beginning how the heaven and earth Rose out of chaos."

26. Irony is a mode of speech expressing a meaning contrary to that which the speaker intends to convey, as in Job's address to his friends, '' No doubt but ye are the people, and wisdom will die with you."

27. Sarcasm is a mode of expressing vituperation under

B

XX MASTERPIECES OF ENGLISH LITERATURE.

a somewhat veiled form. The Letters of Junius come under this description.

Sarcasm is generally softened in the outward expression by the arts and figures of disguise — irony, innuendo, and epigram. Pope's Atticus (see pp. 128, 129 of this book) is a fine example.

28. Synecdoche is that figure which consists in substituting words denoting a part, a species, or the concrete for words denoting the whole, a genus, or the abstract; or the reverse. Thus —

I . A part for the whole, as sail for ship.

1. The species for the genus, as "our daily bread" for our daily food.

3. The concrete for the abstract, as "The/a//^<?r yearns in the true prince's \v^-Axt"— father me^nlng^ paternal love.

4. The whole for a part, as America for the United States.

5. The genus for the species, as a vessel for a ship, a creature for a man.

6. The abstract for the concrete, as —

" Belgium's capital had gathered then Her beauty and her chivalry"

meaning her beautiful women and bi'ave men.

Antonomasia. — Antonomasia is a form of synecdoche resembling (2), only that instead of the species being put for the genus, the individual is put for the species. It consists in using a proper name to designate a class, as a Solomon for a wise man, a Crcssus for a rich man.

29. Metonymy is that figure in which one thing is described by the name of another thing having to the thing described the relation of cause, effect, adjunct, or accompaniment. Thus :

1. Cause for effect, as "the savage desolation of war," where the cause of the desolation (a savage spirit) is put for the effect.

2. The effect for the cause, 2& gray hairs for old age.

3. The sign for the thing signified, as sceptre for royalty, the White House for the office of President.

4. The container for the thing contained, as bottle for intoxicating drink, purse for money.

DEFINITIONS. xxi

5. The instrument for the agent, as the arbitration of the sword — meaning war.

6. An author for his works, as "They have Moses and the prophets," "We find in Bacon" — meaning Baco7ts writings.

Distinction. — From definitions 28 and 29 it may be inferred that a synecdoche is a figure in which a word is used to express a thing that differs from its original meaning only in degree, and not in kind ; while a metonymy is a figure in which a word is used to express a thing differing from its original in kind. Hence metonymies are somewhat bolder than synecdoches.

30. Euphemism is the figure by means of which a harsh meaning is expressed in words of softer signification, as " He was unable to meet his engagements'' for he failed in business.

31. Litotes is that figure in which, by denying the contrary, more is impHed than is expressed, as —

" Immortal names, That were not born to die" — i. a., that will live.

32. Transferred Epithet. — An epithet is a word joined to another in order to explain its character, as sea-girt Salamis, the sunny South.

The transference of an epithet from its proper subject to some allied subject or circumstance is a common figure in poetry, as —

" Hence to his idle bed."

"The little fields made green By husbandry of many thrifty years.''''

II. Figures of Gradation.

33. Climax is an ascending series of thoughts or statements, increasing in strength or importance until the last. Thus :

"It is an outrage to bind a Roman citizen ; to scourge him is an atrocious crime; Xo put him to death is almost a parricide ; but to CRUCIFY him — what shall I call it?" — Cicero.

Anticlimax. — Any great departure from the order of ascending strength is called an anticlimax. Thus :

" If once a man indulges himself in murder, very soon he comes to think little of robbing ; and from robbing he comes next to drinking and Sabbath-breaking, and from that to incivility and procrastination." — De Quincey.

xxii MASTERPIECES OF ENGLISH LITERATURE.

34. Hyperbole is that figure by which more than the Ht-

eral truth is expressed. It consists in magnifying objects

beyond their natural bounds, so as to make them more

impressive or more intelligible. Thus :

" Beneath the lowest deep, a lower deep.

Still threatening to devour me, opens wide." — Milton.

'///. Figures of Emphasis.

35. Epizeuxis is the immediate repetition of some word or words for the sake of emphasis, as —

'■^FeWjfezt) shall part where many meet."

Repetitio Crebra. — The name "repetitio crebra" is applied to the frequent repetition of a word, as —

"He sang Darius, good and great, Fallen., falleii. fallen^ fallen, Fallen from his high estate." — Dryden.

36. Anaphora is the repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of each of several sentences, or divisions of a sentence, as —

" By foreign hands thy dying eyes were closed. By foi-eign hands thy decent limbs composed, By foreign hands thy humble grave adorned. By strangers honored, and by strangers mourned."— PoPE.

37. Alliteration is the repetition of the same initial letter of emphatic words, as — ■

38. Anacoluthon is the device of leaving a proposition

unfinished, and introducing something else to complete

the sentence, as —

" If thou be'st he — but oh, how fallen, how changed From him who," etc.

39. Aposiopesis is a sudden pause in the course of a sentence by which the conclusion is left unfinished, as —

" For there I picked up on the heather, And there I put within my breast, A moulted feather, an eagle's feather — Well — I forget the rest." — Browning.

DEFINITIONS. • xxiii

IV. Grammatical Figures.

40. Ellipsis is the omission of words with a rhetorical purpose. Thus "Impossible!" is more expressive than a complete sentence affirming impossibility.

Asyndeton, or the omission of connectives, is a device of which considerable use is made both in prose and poetry : " The wind passeth over it — it is gone."

41. Enallage is the substitution of one part of speech for another, as —

" Whether the charmer sinner it or saint it, If folly grow romantic, I must paint it." — Pope.

42. Pleonasm is the employment of more words than usual, or of redundant words, as " Thy rod and thy staff, tJiey comfort me."

When properly employed, pleonasm is a legitimate rhetorical device, and may be productive of a high degree of emphasis.

II. THE ORDER OF WORDS.

43. Words may be arranged in two orders — the grammatical and the rhetorical order.

44. The grammatical order, otherwise called the direct, or prose order, is the ordinary prose arrangement of words in a sentence.

There is a customary order of the parts of a sentence which in ordinary speech and writing we unconsciously follow. Thus the subject precedes the verb, and the arrangement of a simple sentence is in the order of subject, verb, object. But for the sake of emphasis or ornament this natural arrangement is often departed from.

45. The rhetorical order, otherwise called the indirect, or poetic order, is an inverted arrangement of words, adopted with a view to greater effect. It is characteristic of poetry, and of elevated or impassioned prose.

MASTERPIECES OF ENGLISH LITERATURE.

GRAMMATICAL ORDER.

I shall attempt neither to palliate nor deny the atrocious crime of being a young man.

The gate is wide and the way is broad that leadeth to destruction.

They could take their rest, for they knew that Lord Stratford watched. They feared kim, they trusted him, they obeyed hi?n.

The night-winds sigh, the breakers roar, and the wild sea-mew shrieks.

RHETORICAL ORDER.

The atrocious crime of being a young man I shall attempt neither to palliate nor deny.

Wide is the gate and broad is the way that leadeth to destruction.

They could take their rest, for they knew that Lord Stratford watched. Him they feared, him they trusted, him they obeyed.

The night-winds sigh, the breakers roar.

And shrieks the wild sea-mew.

III. THE QUALITIES OF STYLE.

46. The principal qualities of style are perspicuity, energy, and melody.

47. Perspicuity, or clearness of expression, is such a use of words that they may readily be understood by those to whom they are addressed.

48. Its Sources. — The principal sources of perspicuity are simplicity and precision.

49. Simplicity of style arises from the choice of simple words, and from such an arrangement of words in sentences as adapts them to easy comprehension. The works of De Foe, Bunyan, Addison, Franklin, and Washington Irving illustrate this quality.

L Simplicity, in so far as it depends on- diction, is best obtained by the employment of specific and concrete terms rather than those that are general or abstract. It is also secured by the use of Anglo-Saxon words (see Def. 6i) rather than those of classical origin. And it is to be observed that there is an intimate relation between these two sources of simplicity ; for it will be found that most specific and concrete terms are of Anglo-Saxon, and most general and abstract terms of classical, origin. This is well illustrated in the following passage from an essay by Henry Rogers ; " Move and motiofi are gen-

DEFINITIONS. XXV

eral terms of Latin origin ; but all the special terms for expressing varieties of motion are Anglo-Saxon, as mn, walk, leap, stagger, slip, step, slide. Color is Latin ; but white, black, green, yellow, blue, red, brown, are Anglo - Saxon, Crime is Latin ; but murder, theft, robbery, to lie, to steal, are Anglo- Saxon. Member and organ, as applied to the body, are Latin and Greek ; but ear, eye, hand, foot, lip, mouth, teeth, hair, finger, nostril, are Anglo-Saxon. Animal is Latin ; but niati, horse, coiu, sheep, dog, cat, calf , goat, are Anglo-Saxon. Ntimber is Latin ; but all our cardinal and ordinal numbers, as far as a million, are Anglo-Saxon."

IL Simplicity, in so far as it depends on the structure of sentences, is best obtained by the use of short rather than long sentences, and of the loose sentence rather than the period (see Def. 57), and by an easy, natural, and inartificial arrangement of words, phrases, and clauses.

50. Precision consists in the selection of such u^^ords as may exhibit neither more nor less than the meaning which the writer intends to convey.

51. Its Violations. — The most frequent violations of precision are: I. By \.\i& faulty use of synonymous zvords ; II. By the improper use of zvords ; III. By the use of vague zvords ; IV. By tautology ; V. By circumlocution.

L By the faulty use of synonymous words, as where modest (which refers to the habit of mind, and is commendable) is used for bashfid (which refers to the state of feeling, and is reprehensible).

IL By the improper use of words, as " I would not demean myself," where " demean," which signifies behave, is, by confusion arising from the root mean, used for debase or lower.

III. By the use of vague words, as affair, circumstance, remarkable, where used in place of definite and specific words.

IV. By tautology, or the repetition of the same idea in different words, as " They returned back again to the same ^\slc& frorn whence they came forth ;" which is reducible to " They returned to the place whence they departed." A critic has pointed out that Dr. Johnson's couplet,

" Let observation with extensive view Survey mankind from China to Peru,"

is equivalent to " Let observation with extensive observation observe mankind extensively."

xxvi MASTERPIECES OF ENGLISH LITERATURE.

V. By circumlocution, or a roundabout mode of speech, in which words are multipHed to an unnecessary extent. The following is an example of circumlocution :

" Pope professed to have learned his poetry from Dryden, whom, whenever an opportunity was presented, he praised through the whole period of his existence with unvarying liberality ; and perhaps his character may receive some illustration, if a comparison be instituted between him and the man whose pupil he was." — Du. Johnson.

Condensed thus by Bain :

" Pope professed himself the pupil of Dryden, whom he lost no opportunity of praising ; and his character is illustrated by a comparison with his master."

52. Energy (variously termed by writers on rhetoric vigor, force, strength, vivacity, and persuasiveness) is that quaHty of style which conduces to arouse the attention, enforce argument, stimulate imagination, and excite the feelings. It is the vital element in style.

I. Among the requisites of energy are simplicity (the simplest words being often the strongest), conciseness, and precision.

II. Another important device for securing energy of style is the use of specific and concrete terms rather than of general and abstract terms.

53. Melody, harmony, or music of language is that quality in style which gives pleasure by the use of euphonious words and rhythmical arrangements.

I. While the "harmony of sweet sounds" is an essential of verse, it is influential in prose also. Prose has its rhythm as well as poetry, only it is less artificial and more varied. "Rhythm in prose," says De Mille, "may be defined as the alternate swelling and lessening of sound at certain intervals. It refers to the general effect of sentences and paragraphs, where the words are chosen and arranged so as not only to express the meaning of the writer, but also to furnish a musical accompaniment which shall at once delight the ear by its sound, and help out the sense by its suggestiveness."

II. The following passage from De Quincey has relation to the subject of prose rhythm, and is further interesting as in itself an illustration of rhythmic prose :

" Where, out of Sir Thomas Browne, shall we hope to find music so Miltonic, an intonation of such solemn chords as are struck in the following opening bar of a passage in the U?-7i-B}irial : ' Now since these bones have rested quietly in the grave, under the drums and ti-amplings of three conquests,' etc. What a melodious ascent as of a prelude to some impassioned requiem breathing from the pomps of the earth and from the sanctities of the grave! What 3.yijictiis decianauus of rhetoric! Time expounded

DEFINITIONS. xxvii

not by generations or centuries, but by vast periods of conquests and dynasties ; by cycles of Pharaohs and Ptolemies, Antiochi and Arsacides ! And these vast successions of time distinguished and figured by the uproars which revolve at their inaugurations—by the drums and tramplings rolling overhead upon the chambers of forgotten dead — the trepidations of time and mortahty vexing, at secular intervals, the everlasting Sabbaths of the grave ! ' '

III. Types Of Sentences

54. Classification. — Sentences are classified grammatically and rhetorically. Grammatically, they are divided, as regards structure, into simple, complex, and compound ; and, as regards use, into declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamative. Rhetorically, they are divided into loose sentences and periods.

55. Divisions by Structure. — A simple sentence consists of one independent proposition ; a complex sentence consists of one independent (or principal) proposition and one or more clauses ; ' a compound sentence consists of two or more independent propositions.

56. Divisions by Use. — A declarative sentence is one that expresses an assertion (that is, an affirmation or a negation) ; an intei'rogative sentence is one that expresses a question ; an imperative sentence is one that expresses a command or an entreaty ; an exclamative sentence is one that expresses a thought in an interjectional manner.

57. A loose sentence consists of parts which may be separated without destroying the sense. Thus :

The Puritans looked down with contempt on the rich | and the eloquent, I on nobles | and priests.

I. The above is a loose sentence, because if we pause at any of the places marked, the sense is grammatically complete. Sometimes, as in this instance, it is necessary to supply ellipses in order to make the latter part complete ; in other cases,

^The term clause is in this book always used in the sense of a dej^endent or subordinate proposition, introduced by a connective. It is never applied to the independent nieinhers of a compound sentence.