Front matter
PHILOSOPHY OF HISTORY
TOO SWIFT ARRIVES TOO TARDY AS TOO SLOW.’’
— Shakespeare.
Preface
In this volume I have endeavoured to give an account of the principal attempts which have been made in France and Germany philosophically to comprehend and explain the history of mankind, with a reasoned estimate of their value. I have still to describe and criticise the general philosophies of history which have appeared in Italy and England ; to indicate what light has been thrown on the course, laws, and significance of human development by the progress of the sciences; and to notice the chief contributions which have been made to the discussion of the special problems of historical speculation. In bibliographical appendices I mean briefly to characterise the large number of writings on the philosophy of history which, from their inferior importance, or other causes, have not been examined in the work itself.
At a time when all history is rapidly tending to become scientific, and almost all science is adopting historical methods, it requires but little perspicacity to foresee that thoughtful minds will soon be far more generally and earnestly engaged in the philosophical study of history than they have ever yet been. It cannot, therefore, be inopportune to record what has already been attempted in this department, and to indicate
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PREFACE.
what has been achieved, and where and why there has been failure.
The substance, or, I should perhaps rather say, the germ, of the following work was delivered in two series of lectures at the Edinburgh Philosophical Institution. With the exception of some pages on Comte and Hegel, little has been directly transferred from the lectures to the book ; and I here mention the former merely because I would gladly associate in some measure the latter with an Institution which has had a very honourable place in the intellectual history of Scotland, and from the members of which I have repeatedly received much indulgent kindness.
The volume has been a considerable time in passing through the press. Thus the chapter on the historical speculations of MM. Michelet and Quinet was printed and revised previous to the death of M. Michelet, which took place on 10th February 1874.
Although the work was begun and has been carried on mainly as an introduction to other studies which have longer occupied my thoughts, it has cost a considerable amount of labour, and may, I hope, not only be of use until a better appears,, but help, to some extent, any one who hereafter engages in the same task, to accomplish it with more ease and success than I have done.
I have to thank my learned colleague, Professor Crombie, for his great kindness in assisting me to revise all but a few sheets of this volume.
Introduction
PAGE
Aim of the present work, ....... 1
The absolute origin of historical philosophy cannot be discovered, . 2
All great religions have involved historical theory, ... 4
How philosophy includes historical speculation, .... 5
How political discussion leads to historical speculation, ... 7
The philosophy of history is a natural growth of history itself, . . 8
History in the great oriental nations, . . . . .9
The Jewish historical records, . . . . . .11
History among the Greeks, . . . . .12
The idea of a universal history was the result of Roman history, . . 14
Christianity introduced into history the consciousness of a spiritual unity of the human race and the conception of a divine plan gradually unfolded in time, . . . . ... 16
—^Sketch of the historical philosophy of Augustine, . . . .17
^^Its merits and defects, ....... 22
The medieval mind had not a sufficiently comprehensive acquaintance
with historical facts to frame a philosophy of history, . . 23
It could neither sift nor scientifically use the facts accessible to it, . 24
How modern historians, differ from ancient and medieval historians, . 26
The growth of history towards a scientific stage has been partly the consequence and partly the cause of the growth of certain ideas, . 28
How far the idea of progress was known among the oriental nations, . 29
In Greece and Rome human development was thought of as progressive, retrogressive, and cyclical, but in none of these ways consistently or x comprehensively. This proved, . . . . 30
Christianity and the idea of progress, . . . .37
The Gnostics, Montanists, and early Millenarians, . . .38
The Christian Fathers, ....... 39
The idea of progress in the middle ages, . . . .. .40
It implies the idea of unity, ...... 42
Dawn of the consciousness of human unity, . , . .43
Traces of this consciousness in Egypt, China, India, and Persia, . . • 44
The services of Greece to the cause of human unity, . . .47
Those of Rome, ........ 49
X CONTENTS.
Christianity supplied what was defective in the Greco-Roman view, . 51
Gradual realisation of the idea of human unity in the Christian world, . 58
Why the history of the idea of freedom is not traced, . . .61
Chapter I.-BODIN AND CARTESIANISM
Sketch of the progress of history in France from its rise to the sixteenth
Bodin the first French author who took a philosophical survey of history, 68
Character of his * Methodus,’ ...... 69
The place he assigns to human history, . . . . .70
His recognition of progress in history, . . . . .71
His recognition of law in history, . . . . . .73
Sought to explain events, chiefly by general physical and political causes, ib. Attempted to explain the origin of nations and to divide time into epochs, 75 Influence of Cartesianism on historical study, . . . .76
The idea of progress in Pascal, Perrault, Fontenelle, &c., . . . 78
Chapter II.— BISHOP BOSSUET
Was Bossuet the founder of the philosophy of history ? . . .81
Summary of his * Discours sur l’Histoire Uni verselle,’ . . .83
The true and the false in his attempt to rest the philosophy of history on the
doctrine of Providence, ...... 84
He erred as to the final cause of history, . . . . .86
Did justice only to the Christian element in history, . . .88
Unfairness of Mr Buckle’s criticism of Bossuet, . . .89
Chapter III.— MONTESQUIEU. Mental change in France between 1681 and 1748, . . .93
The central conception of the ‘ Spirit of Laws,’ . . . .95
Montesquieu’s method defective inasmuch as he did not systematically
compare coexistent and consecutive social states, . . .96
Often explained historical facts when he failed to reach their general laws, 97 He had an inaccurate notion of inductive law, . . . .99
In treating of the influences of governments he confounded two distinct
His defective method led him to exaggerate the influence of physical
agencies and to overlook that it is chiefly indirect, . 4 .103
He proved and applied the principle that the course of history is chiefly
determined by general causes, . . . . .105
He introduced the economical element into historical science, . .106
The concluding books of his work, ..... 107
CONTENTS. xi
Chapter IV.— TURGOT. His character, . . . . . . • .109
His chief service to the science of history lies in the comprehensive view
he gave of human progression, . . . . .110
His sketch of a political geography, . . . . .112
His anticipation of Comte’s “law of three states,” . . . 113
He gave it no irreligious application, . . • .114
Chapter Y. — YOLTAIRE.
Why such different estimates have been formed of his character and influence, 116 Aim of his ‘ Essay on the Manners and Spirit of Nations,* . .117
The qualities displayed in it. Critical spirit, . . . .118
Independence of judgment, . . 119
Hostility to Christianity, . . . 120
Want of comprehensiveness, . .121
Want of philosophical depth, . .122
The views of Voltaire’s contemporaries on the course of history, . .123
Chapter VI.— CONDORCET
Ciretimstances in which his ‘ Sketch of the Progress of the Human Spirit *
Its fundamental idea, . . . . . . .127
Its division of human development into epochs, .... ib.
Imperfections of the division, ...... 128
Exaggerated and inconsistent view of human perfectibility, . .129
Importance of the last chapter of the work, . . . .131
The tendencies of progress maintained to be towards (1) the distinction of inequality between nations, (2) the destruction of inequality between classes, and (3) the improvement of individuals. These tendencies considered, . . . .132
Chapter VII.— THE THEOCRATIC SCHOOL. The French Revolution and historical speculation, . . .139
Origin of the theocratic school, . . . . . .140
Its representatives, . . . . . .141
Its antagonism to modem philosophy, . . . . .143
Its defence of absolute authority as the basis of society, . . .147
The historical theory of M. Ballanche, . . . . .149
The theocratic ideal of society, . . . . .151
Historical formulae of M. de Bonald, ..... 154
Chapter VIII.— SAINT-SIMON AND FOURIER. Distinctive principle of Socialism, . . . . . .155
Character and influence of Saint-Simon, . . . .156
Place which he assigns to the science of history, .... 157
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CONTENTS.
His laws of two states from which Comte’s law of three states must have
His attempt to reduce historical to physical law, . . . .160
He sought to raise his historical philosophy on the foundation laid by
Its leading principle is that general intelligence and individual intelligence are developed according to the same law, and pass through precisely parallel stages, ....... 163
Saint-Simon divides history into organic and critical periods, 164
Attempts to arrange the facts of history into series corresponding to the
chief phases of human nature, ..... 165
Also attempts to arrange the various societies of men into a scale graduated
according to their degree of culture, . . ib.
Assumes the rudest stages of culture to he the oldest, . . . 166
Fourier’s exaggeration of the principle of perfectibility, . . 167
His law of “ passional attraction,” . ..... 168
His division of history into four great periods corresponding to infancy,
youth, manhood, and old age, . . . . . .169
I. The eclectic school, . . . . .172
Relation of Cousin to Hegel, . . . . . . 173
His view of the connection between psychology and the philosophy of
history correct, ....... 174
He errs in substituting human reason for human nature, . . . 176
In his division of intelligence into spontaneous and reflective, he confuses
a number of distinctions, ...... 178
His distribution of history into the three epochs of the infinite, finite, and their relation, rests on an inaccurate analysis of reason, and is inconsistent with facts, . . . . . .185
His views regarding the influence of places on history inconsistent and erroneous, ......
His theory of nations, .....
The theory examined, .....
His theory of war examined, ....
His theory of great men, .....
•
Its examination, ......
II. Jouffroy’s writings on the Philosophy of History
Summary of his ‘ Reflections, ’
Summary of his essay on ‘ The Present State of Humanity, ’
How far inconclusive, .....
Dissent from his speculations as to the relation of England, France, and
Germany to the future of humanity, .
CONTENTS.
xiii
Chapter X.— GUIZOT. Connection of doctrinaire politics with eclectic philosophy, . .219
Guizot as historian and historical philosopher, .... 221
How his historical works are related to one another, . . . 223
Examination of his opinion that French civilisation is the type or model
of civilisation, ........ 226
Criticism of his account of civilisation, ..... 233
How he distinguishes ancient from modern civilisation, . . . 235
His vindication of the notion of political legitimacy, . . . 236
Summary of the ‘ Course of 1829,’ ..... 239
The scientific spirit and character of Guizot’s method, . . . 240
His proof of the existence of historical science, .... 241
Chapter XI.— THE SOCIALISTIC SCHOOL CONTINUED : BUCHEZ AND LEROUX. I
Literary life of M. Buchez, . . . . .242
Analysis of his ‘ Introduction to the Science of History,’ . . . 243
His definition of the science of history, ... ib.
Dependence of the science on the ideas of humanity and progress, . 244
Summary of the discussion on ‘ The Methods of the Science of History,’ . 245 His division of history into four epochs, each initiated by a revelation, . 249 General estimate of his work, ' . . . . . . 250
II.
Literaiy life of M. Leroux, ....... 252
His ‘ Refutation of Eclecticism,’ . . . . . .253
The theory of historical development expounded in his ‘ De l’Humanitd ’ rests on his definition of man — “an animal transformed by reason and united to humanity,” ...... 254
His view of continuous progress, ...... 255
“The axiom of solidarity,” ...... 256
Progress represented as a continuous advance towards equality, with three
stages corresponding to the three chief forms of caste, . . 257
Chapter XII.— AUGUSTE COMTE
What parts of Comte’s works treat of the philosophy of history, . . 259
General aim of Comte’s labours, ...... 260
The plfice of the philosophy of history in his system, . . . 261
He attempts to combine the truths of order and progress, and so to avoid
the one-sidedness both of the reactionists and revolutionists, . . ib.
. He did not borrow from Hegel or Schelling, .... 262
Fairness and unfairness in his estimate of the past, . . . 264
} His “ law of the three states,” . . . . . 267
XIV
CONTENTS.
It rests on a confusion of aspects of things with eras of time, . • 269
Where it applies at all it applies only partially, . . • .272
How Comte treats the facts inconsistent with it, . . .273
How J. S. Mill deals with them, . . . . • .275
M. LittrS and Comte’s law, ...••*&•
Littrd’s law of four states proceeds on the denial of a truth insisted on by
Comte, and is contradicted by the facts, . . . 279
Comte’s Positive Religion should be counted as a fourth state, . . 281
^-Mill’s assertion of the compatibility of Positivism and Theism irreconcilable with his acceptance of the Comtist law, . . . .283
Chapter XIII.— THE DEMOCRATIC SCHOOL : MICHELET AND QUINET. I
Democracy in France, ....... 285
Writings of M. Michelet which bear on the philosophy of history, . 286
His relation to Vico, ....... 287
His ‘ Introduction to Universal History ’ represents history as the progressive realisation of freedom in humanity, .... 291
Account of the work, ....... 292
Some of its errors, ........ 295
The ‘Bible of Humanity,’ ....... 297
II.
Life of M. Quinet, ........ 298
His relation to Herder, ....... 300
He regards history as the manifestation of free-will, . . . 301
Maintains that religion is the generative principle of civilisation, . . 303
His polemic against the optimism of the doctrinarian historical philosophy, 304 Its substantial justice, ....... 306
Logical error of the doctrinarian historians, .... 308
Chapter XIV.— THE DEMOCRATIC SCHOOL CONTINUED : DE TOCQUEVILLE, ODYSSE - BAROT, DE FERRON, AND LAURENT.
How De Tocqueville’s works bear on historical philosophy, . .311
Character of M. Odysse-Barot’s ‘Letters on the Philosophy of History,’ . 313
Examination of his three so-called laws, . . . . .314
M. de Ferron in his ‘ Theory of Progress ’ attempts to combine the principles of Vico and Saint-Simon, and to combat Csesarism, . . 320
How M. Laurent’s ‘ Philosophy of History ’ is related to his ‘ Studies on
the History of Humanity, ’ . . . . . . 321
It deals chiefly with the moral development of humanity, . . . 323
And surveys history rather from a religious than a scientific point of view, 324 It is an important contribution to natural theology, . . . 325
Inaccuracy of Professor Bona Meyer’s criticism of it, . . ib.
Summary of the second book of M. Laurent’s work, . . 328
CONTENTS.
XV
Chapter I.— THE PROGRESS OF HISTORIOGRAPHY IN GERMANY. Historical inquiry was stimulated in Germany by the Renaissance and
Reformation, although both of these events led men to value the knowledge of history merely as a means, .... 333
Ecclesiastical historiography in Germany was first polemic, . . 334
next pietistic, . . ib .
then pragmatic, . . 335
afterwards rationalistic, . . ib,
and has become philosophical, . . 336
Civil historiography has run a nearly parallel course, . . . ib.
In the sixteenth century history still appeared in the form of Chronicles, ib. In the seventeenth century learned historical collections were made, . 337
About the middle of the eighteenth century a school of learned historians
arose in the universities, ...... 338
The German Illuminism gave rise to a school which attempted to philosophise on history, ....... 339
And which was succeeded by one more critical and profound, . . 341
Chapter II.-THE RISE OF HISTORICAL PHILOSOPHY IN GERMANY : LEIBNITZ, ISELIN, WEGELIN, SCHLOZER, VON MULLER.
The services of Leibnitz to the philosophy of history, . . . 344
The idea of there being a philosophy of history received by the Germans
Chladni’s * General Science of History,’ . . . . . ib.
Character of Iselin, ....... 348
And of his work entitled * Philosophical Conjectures on the History of
Account of this treatise, . . . . .349
Wegelin’s historical works, . . . . .351
His * Five Memoirs on the Philosophy of History,’ . . . 353
Analysis and criticism of these Memoirs, . . . . . 355
Schlozer as an historian, ....... 361
His “ ideal” of a universal history, ..... 362
Better realised by Von Muller than by himself, .... 363
Chapter III.— LESSING. ^In what sense a philosopher, ...... 366
*>In his ‘ Education of the Human Race ’ he does not sketch a philosophy of history from the stand-point of religion, but treats of revelation in relation to history, .......
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CONTENTS.
He regards revelation as the education of the race, and as differing from
natural religion only in form, . . . . .368
Narrowness and inconsistency of this view, . . ib.
He conceives of the Old and New Testaments as school-books of the human race, the former of which has been, and the latter of which will be, outgrown, . . . . . . 369
Remarks on the way in which he has presented the idea of a divine education of humanity, . . . . . . .372
Chapter IV.— HERDER.*''
How led to the thought that there must be a philosophy of history, . 375
Character of his ‘ Ideas for a Philosophy of the History of Mankind,’ . 376 General view of its first eight books, . . . . .377
Herder conceives of spirit in such a way as to make his belief in freedom
Treats of the lower stages of human life with more ability than the higher, 380 Insists on the interdependence of men as a truth of historical philosophy, . . . . . . ib.
Tries to show where man originated, . . . . .381
Marks the place in history of each nation and age, . . . 382
His catholicity of feeling and comprehensiveness of view, . . . ib.
He regards humanity as the end of history, and maintains that it is realised
freely through reason and justice, . . . . .383
Vagueness of his conception of humanity, ..... 384
And of most of his general conceptions, . . . . .385
The five propositions of his fifteenth book, .... 386
Chapter V.'^KANT AND SCHILLER
The thought with which Kant’s ‘ Idea of a Universal History from a cos-
mopolitical point of view ’ starts, ..... 388
Explanation and criticism of its nine propositions, viz. —
1°, That all the natural tendencies of each creature have been so formed as that they will finally reach a complete and appropriate development, ...... 389
2°, That the natural tendencies of man, which have for destination the use of reason, must find their perfect development, not in the individual, but in the species, . . . . ib.
3°, That nature has willed that man should draw from his own internal resources by the right use of his reason what happiness and perfection he is to possess, .... 390
4°, That the means nature employ's to bring about the development
of man’s powers is their antagonism in the social state, . 391
5°, That the most important problem for the human race is the JA1, establishment of a universal civil society in which political
justice will reign, ...... ib.
6°, That this is also its most difficult problem, . - . 392
> 7°, That this problem implies a regular constitution of international relations, . . . . . .... ib.
CONTENTS.
XVII ji, 8°, That the history of the human race may be regarded as the accomplishment of a secret plan of nature to solve this problem, 393 9°, That a philosophical universal history must be composed from
this point of view, . ... . . . ib.
Kant gives an illegitimate place to a priori speculation and to the principle of final causes, . . . . . . 396
His view of the particular final cause of history is erroneous, . . 398
Defence of it by Rosenkranz, . . . . . ib.
_^.Kant’s treatise ‘Of Perpetual Peace,’ and the treatises of others on the
Estimate of their worth, . . . . . . .401
Kant’s review of Herder’s ‘ Ideen,’ . ..... 403
His ‘ Conjectural Commencement of the History of Mankind,’ . . ib.
His attempt to give definiteness to the idea of organic development, . 404
Schiller’s relation to Kant, ...... 405
--^Summary of his Inaugural Discourse on Universal History, . . 406
He showed the place and importance of art in history, . . . 407
His three epochs of history, . . . . .408
Chapter VI.— FICHTE
Fichte’s theory of history rests on the principle that philosophy is to be
kept separate from experience, . . . . .410
He fails to establish this principle, . . . . .411
Maintains that the end of the life of mankind on earth is to order all their
relations with freedom according to reason, . . . .413
Divides history into five epochs, — the state of innocence, of progressive
sin, of completed sin, of science, and of art, . . . ,414
His views on the origin of civilisation, . . . . .415
Hypothesis of a primitive normal people surrounded by earth-born savages, 416 Character of the lectures on the third age, . . . .417
^Cosmopolitanism of the ‘ Characteristics,’ . . . . ■ ib.
Different spirit of the ‘ Discourses to the German Nation,’ . . 418
_ >Tone of thought and feeling in the lectures ‘ On the Doctrine of the State,’ 420
Chapter VII.— SCHELLING. Character of Schelling
His earliest discussion of the question, Is a philosophy of history possible ?
Point of view from which the ‘ System of Transcendental Idealism ’ is written, ........
Nature resolved into intelligence and development represented as universal, . . . . .
Views adopted by Schelling from Kant and Fichte,
Human history regarded by him as characterised by the union of freedom and necessity, . .
Also as a self-evolution of the absolute, and divisible into a period of destiny, of nature, and of providence, ....
In his * Lectures on the Method of Academic Study ’ he maintains the hypothesis of a primitive cultured people, ....
426 ^
CONTENTS.
Represents history as the ideal side of the Absolute, and the ancient world,
as the real and the modem world, as the ideal side of history, . 428
Considers the primary characteristic of Christianity to be its regarding the
universe as history, ....... ib.
Considers the end of history to be the formation of a State in which freedom and necessity are harmonised, ..... 429
Considers that a philosophy or science of history must be derived from
theology or philosophy, ...... 430
In his ‘ Philosophy and Religion ’ he maintains that the finite world is a
falling away from the Absolute, ..... 431
Represents history as consisting of two parts, — the departure of humanity
from the centre of existence, and its return, .... 432
And assails the doctrine of continuous historical progress, . . ib .
In his c Inquiries into Human Freedom ’ he represents history as a lengthened conflict between self-will and universal will, ending in the triumph of the latter, ....... 433
Schelling’s views on history form no system, and are mostly unproved, . ib.
His method is neither legitimately inductive nor deductive, . . 434
His “ absolute ” is a creation of fancy, ..... 435
In defending it against the attack of Sir William Hamilton, Professor
Ferrier erred both as to that absolute and Hamilton’s relative, . 436
It was an error in Schelling to represent the absolute, and not humanity,
as the subject of history, . . . . . .437
He failed in all attempts to derive history from the absolute by evolution,
emanation, or disseverance, ...... 438
He saw clearly that history combines freedom and necessity, without being
able to show how, ....... ib.
His divisions of history have no value, ..... 439
His affirmation that history is a divine poem is merely a metaphor, . 440
Chapter VIII.— THE SCHOOL OF SCHELLING : STUTZMANN, STEFFENS, AND GOERRES. Sources of Stutzmann’s * Philosophy of the History of Mankind,’ . 443
Leading doctrines of the work, ...... ib.
Character of Steffens, ....... 445
Relation of his ‘ Anthopology ’ to the philosophy of history, . . ib.
Regarded man as the synthesis of nature, ..... 446
Held that the goal of history is the realisation of the divine image in
Summary of his work, ‘The Present Time,’ &c., .... 448
Historical writings of Goerres, ...... 450
He attempts to exhibit the fundamental principle of history, . .451
To show the relation of its secondary principles to its primary principle, . 452
And to distribute history into epochs, . . . . . ib.
Fancifulness of his views on the course of history, . . . 453
CONTENTS.
XIX
Chapter IX. -FREDERICK SCHLEGEL/ His qualifications for historical speculation, . . . .455
Connection between his ‘ Philosophy of Life ’ and ‘ Philosophy of History,’ 457 Presuppositions of the latter work, . . . . . ib.
The criticism of it by Gans unjust, ..... 458
Contradictory professions with which Schlegel starts, . . . 460
His opinions regarding the primitive condition and history of man, . 461
His view of Chinese, Hindoo, Egyptian, and Hebrew history, . . 462
His attempt to prove that a primitive revelation underlies the various
forms of heathenism, ....... 463
His lectures on Persia, Greece, and Rome, . . . .464
His classification of historical phenomena, .... 465
The lectures on medieval history, ...... 466
His Roman Catholicism, ....... 467
The three principles which he regards as the laws of the historical world, 468 His account of the Reformation questioned, .... 469
His hopes as to the future of humanity, ..... 471
Chapter X.— KRAUSE
His system a vast monistic theory, which ascends analytically from self-consciousness to Deity, and descends synthetically from Deity, so as to comprehend and explain the whole organism of existence, . 476
He defines the philosophy of history as the knowledge of life and its
Divides it into pure and applied, ...... ib.
Attempts to lay its foundation in metaphysics, and the special philosophical sciences, ....... 478
His views on the life of God, the life of the world, and the life of humanity, 479 His dissection of the internal organism of society, . . .481
His description of the course of life, ..... 482
And of the three ages in the history of humanity, . . .483
His theory one of the most elaborate attempts at an a priori explanation
Much empirical matter introduced into the reasoning, . . 487
His inductions valuable, although erroneously put forth as deductions, . ib.
He had the merit of seeing the close connection between the philosophy
of history and universal biology, ..... 488
And of showing historical development to be a kind of organic evolution, 489
Ho supposed the resemblance between the development of the race and
that of the individual closer than it is, . . . .491
The place of free-will in his system, ..... 493
His fancifulness, . .494
XX
CONTENTS.
Chapter XI.— HEGEL.'
The Hegelian philosophy of history part of a comprehensive system, . 496
The system an absolute idealism, all the divisions of which are determined
by an inherent principle or law of movement, . . . 497
How far Hegelianism may be true in regarding the universe as a development or history, ....... 498
The Hegelian view of human history involves all the speculative and
practical difficulties inherent in the Hegelian philosophy in general, 499 Hegel’s idea of God obscure and ambiguous, . . . . 503
His e Philosophy of History ’ pervaded by a religious spirit, . .504
His method so separates the elements of history as tq make historical synthesis impossible, . . . . . . .505
He. treats ably, however, of the separate developments of history, especially of the sesthetical, . . . . . . 507 and philosophical, . . . . . .511
~"Tde regards history as original, or reflective, or philosophical, . . 512""
Aim of philosophical history, . . . . . .513
Non-historical peoples and countries, ..... 514
i Theatre of history, . . . . . . . .515
' The three great stages of history, ...... ib.
Persia, including Judea, . . . . . .517
Christianity, . . . . . . 521
The epochs of Christian history, ...... 522
Unsatisfactoriness of Hegel’s view of the relation of nature and spirit, . 524
Of his view of spirit itself, ....... 525
And of his view of the purpose of historical development, . . 527
His optimism, hero-worship, conception of freedom, &c., . . . 528
His error in representing the course of history as a straight line, . . 531
Examination and disproof of his formula of the three stages, . . 532
What his followers have done in the department of history, . . 540
Chapter XII.— SCHELLING, BUNSEN, AND LASAULX. I
Phases of Schelling’s negative philosophy, .... 542
His positive philosophy, ....... 544
Claims .to be an historical and religious philosophy, . . .545
The ‘ Introduction to Mythology,’ ..... 546
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