Over-population and its remedy; or, an inquiry into the extent and causes of the distress prevailing among the labouring classes of the British Islands, and into the means of remedying it

Front matter

Open Knowledge Commons and Harvard Medical School

<?^ Harvard Medical Library in the Francis A. Countway Library of Medicine -Boston

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Preface

The only Preface Avhich a work of tliis kind requires is an apology for the defects of its execution. Instead of pleading the claims of the poor to an earnest investigation of their distresses, one would be almost rather disposed to wonder that any other subject can be esteemed of national interest while this most momentous problem remains unsolved. The author, therefore, heed take no pains to justify his choice of a subject; and he only wishes that he had equal cause to be satisfied with his treatment of it. Of his motive for writing at all, it can only be said, that "out of the abundance of the heart the mouth speaketh." With zeal for the cause he has espoused, he is amply, perhaps too amply, supplied, and he has spared no exertion to make up for the want of more sterling qualities. Perhaps, indeed, diligence was really the most indispensable requisite for his task. The volume now oiFered to the public has little claim to originality, and does not pretend to be the herald of any new discovery. The author's

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IV PEEFACE.

object has been less to construct a theory of his own, than to collect and arrange the ideas of others^ to work out their hints, to reconcile their inconsistencies, and to form a regular and practicable scheme out of their scattered and apparently incongruous materials. If he has failed in this design, he trusts that he has at least been able to bring the subject into a more convenient shape for discussion. Though he may not persuade any to adopt his sentiments, he may at least induce some to think for themselves, and assist them in coming to conclusions of their own ; and he will not esteem even such partial success an inadequate recompence for the labour with which his leisure has long been occupied.

London, Dec. 1845*

CONTENTS,

Chapter I

Definition of the Term " Over-population. " — Importance of the Subject. — Objects and Plan of the Work - - Page 1

Chapter II. Evidences Of Over-population In England And Wales

Kind of Evidence admissible. — Proposed Test of Over -population. — Actual Remuneration of agricultural Labour. — ■ "Where highest : — in Lincolnshire — Rutland — Northumberland — Cumberland; and Westmoreland. — Where lowest :

— in Dorsetshire — Wiltshire — Somersetshire. — Condition of agricultural Labourers in Kent, Norfolk, Suffolk, Bedfordshire, Buckinghamshire, South Wales. — Condition of other Labourers in rural Districts. — Migration from the Counties into Towns. — State of Town Labourers. — Their recent severe Distress. — Examples of it at Stockport and other Places. — Brief Duration of this Distress. — Digression respecting the Causes from which it proceeded. — Comparative Prosperity of the urban labouring Population in ordinary Times. — Differences in Remuneration of different Classes of Town Labourers. — Trades Unions Long-continued Distress of Hand-loom Weavers. — Sufferings of indigent Strangers in Towns. — Of self-dependent Females and Children. — General Conclusions as to the Extent of the Redundancy of Population in rural Districts, and in Towns.

— Amount of Pauperism relieved by public Charity - 7

VI CONTENTS.

CHAPTEE III.

EVIDENCES OF OVEE-POPULATION IN SCOTLAND AND IRELAND.

Small Amount of official Pauperism in Scotland. — Thriving Condition of the Peasantry of the Lowlands. — Destitution and Distress in the Highlands — in Sutherland — on the Western Coasts — in the Hebrides. — Munificence of the late Duchess of Sutherland and others. — General Neglect of their Tenantry by Highland Proprietors. — Privations of Highland Immigrants in G-lasgow. — General Condition of the labouring Classes in Scotch Towns. — Partial Character of Over- population in Scotland. — Ireland. — Importance of tlie Information obtained at the last Census. — Striking Contrast in the Distribution of the Population in Great Britain and in Ireland. — Notoriety of the Misery of the latter Island — Description of it by Irish Railway Commissioners. — Comparative Prosperity of Ulster. — Insufiiciency of Employment in that Province. — Wretchedness of Donegal. — Little Demand for Labour in Leinster. — Desperate Expedients for a Livelihood resorted to by the People. — Particulars of the Sufferings endured by them. — Similar Particulars respecting Munster. — Unparalleled Misery of Connaught. — Condition of Labourers in Irish Towns. — Small Alleviation of Irish Misery effected by the Establishment of a Poor Law Page 70

CHAPTER IV. CAUSES or OVEK-POPULATION IN GENERAL

Decrease in the Demand for Labour. — Excessive Augmentation of the Numbers of a Community. — Propensity of Mankind to multiply too rapidly. — Motives for restraining this Propensity. — Influence of such Motives upon People in easy Circumstances. — Their utter Inefiicacy among the very Poor. — Tendency of Misery to promote Population. — Illustrations of the Theory proposed — Structure of Society among pastoral Nations. — Gradual Conversion of the Poor of such Communities into agricultural Serfs. — Pliysical

CONTENTS. Vll

Well-being of Serfs. — Frequent Transformation of them into free Peasant Proprietors. — Prosperity of the Peasantry in Germany, Esthonia, Holland, Belgium. — Sketch of the Progress of Society in the Netherlands. — State of the Norwegian and Swiss Peasantry. — Causes and Antiquity of their Prosperity. — Explanation of the Pauperism existing in continental Towns. — Past and present Condition of the People in Poland and France. — Wretchedness of the labouring Class in Southern Italy. — Happiness of the Peasantry in Tuscany and Lombardy - - Page 114

Chapter V. Causes Of Over-population In England

Prosperous Condition of English Labourers in early Times. — History of the English Peasantry. — Peculiarities of the Saxon Conquest. — Structure of Society among the Anglo-Saxons. — ■ Establishment of Serfdom, or Yillenage. — Its modified Character, and rapid Extinction. — G-rowing Importance of Villains after the Norman Conquest. — High Wages of agricultural Labourers in the fourteenth and fifteenth Centuries. — Ineffectual Efforts of Parliament to reduce them. — Causes of the high Price of Labour at this Period. — Deterioration of the Condition of the Peasantry after the Accession of Henry VII. — Growth of Pauperism and Mendicancy during the sixteenth Century. — Explanation of the Change in the Situation of the Peasantry. — Temporary Improvement of their Condition in the latter Part of Elizabeth's Reign. — Too rapid Progress of Population. — Renewed Advance of Pauperism in the seventeenth and eighteenth Centuries. — Simultaneous Rise in the Remuneration of Labour. — Operation of the Poor Laws. — Formation of Parks. — Enclosure of Common Land. — Great Distress of the labouring Classes during the six concluding Years of the eighteenth Century. — Dearness of the Necessaries of Life during the first ten Years of the nineteenth Century. — Severe Privations of agricultural Labourers. — Encouragement given to Marriage by the Poor Laws. — Increase of National Wealth. — Rapid Progress of Population. — Improvement in the Condition of

VI 11 CONTENTS.

the Peasantry in the ten Years ending with 1820. — Prodigality of Poor Law Administration. — Unprecedented Advance of Population. — Its accelerated Progress in the Period ending with 1830. — Unexampled Increase of the national Wealth. — Reform of the Poor Laws in 1834. — Beneficial Consequences of the Change. — Recurrence of Distress among agricultural Labourers. — Deterioration of their Condition since 1836. — Results of the Census of 1841. — Causes of Over-population in particular Districts. — Obstacles to an excessive Increase of Population in Towns from natural Causes. — Distress of Town Labourers, occasioned by the "Withdrawal of their Occupation. — Immigration from rural Districts. — Recapitulation of foregoing Statements ------ Page 161

Chapter VI. Causes Of Ovek-population In Scotland And Ireland

Relations subsisting between Highland Chieftains and their Clansmen in former Times. — Decline of the clannish Feeling after the Rebellion of 1745. — Ejection of Ilighland Tenantiy and Formation of Sheep Farms. — Decay of Kelp Manufacture. — Effects of Misery on the Character and Habits of the Poor. — Usual Explanation of the excessive Population of Ireland. — Its Incompleteness. — Primeval Poverty of the Irish Peasantry. — Pastoral Occupation of the primitive Irish and of their Descendants until the latter Part of the eighteenth Century. — Wretched State of the labouring Class down to the same Epoch. — Slight Improvement of their Condition, in consequence of the Extension of Tillage. — Effect of this Improvement upon Population. — Contrast between Ulster and the Rest of Ireland. — Tenant Right, — Proneness of the Irish Poor to early Marriages - 246

Chapter VII. Remedies For Over Population In England And Wales

Restrictions on the Marriages of the Poor. — Soundness of the Theory of Malthus. — Its Incompleteness. — Consideration

CONTENTS. IX

of various Scliemes for the Cure of Poverty. — Vindication of the New Poor Law. — Emigration. — Improvement of Agriculture. — Free Trade. — Ability of foreign Countries to supply Great Britain with Provisions. — Imperative Obligation on foreign Merchants to accept British Goods in exchange. — Groundlessness of the Opinion that Cheapness of Food would occasion a Fall of Wages. — Examination of Objections to free Trade in Provisions. — Loss of Revenue. — Dependence on foreign Countries. — Reduction of Rents. — Possible Extent of such Reduction. — Circumstances by which it would be compensated. — Inadmissibility of the Objection that free Trade might lower Rents. — Effect of Free Trade upon the Demand for agricultural Labour. — Subdivision of Farms. — Manner in which that Subdivision would affect Landowners and agricultural Laboui-ers. — Superior Productiveness of small Farms. — High Rents obtainable for them. — Great Amount of human Labour required for their Cultivation. — Cottage Allotments — Their Advantages. — Examination of their supposed Tendency to create an excessive agricultural Population. — Peculiar Circumstances which have led to the minute Partition of Land in Ireland. — Dissimilar Condition of England. — Actual Results of the Occupation of Land by the Peasantry in some Parts of England. — Its Influence in preventing and curing Pauperism, and in checking improvident Marriages. — Tendency of Cottage Allotments to promote the social and moral Improvement of the Occupants - - Page 267

CHAPTER VHL

REMEDIES FOR OVER-POPULATION IN ENGLAND AND WALES —

(^continued).

Certainty of the early Repeal of the Provision Laws. — Importance of the subsequent Conduct of Landowners in determining how Rent and the Remuneration of Labour will be affected. — Certainty of considerable Benefit to Agricultural Labourers, from the Establishment of Free Trade. — Ability of Landlords to improve their Condition forthwith. — Expediency of their preparing for the approaching Change in their

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X CONTENTS.

own Position. — Identity of the Means of promoting the Interests both of themselves and their Dependants. — Peculiar Obligation of Landowners to provide for their poor Neighbours.

— Recent Movements of Parliament in behalf of the Peasantry. — Mr. Cowper's " Field Gardens " Bill, and Lord Lincoln's " Commons' Enclosure" Act, — Objectionable Provisions of the latter. — Advantages obtained from it. — Suggestion of other Expedients for the Extension of the "Allotment System." — Estimate of the Amount of Benefit derivable by agricultural Labourers from Free' Trade and Cottage Allotments. — Probable Permanence of the Improvement in their

Condition Auxiliary Means of promoting their Welfare. —

Payment to Farm Servants of fixed Proportions of the Crop.

— Location of them on the Farm Premises. — Education. — Its general Advantages. — Inapplicability to the labouring Classes of the ordinary Modes of Teaching. ■ — Oral Instruction. — Sorts of Knowledge most useful to the Poor — Expediency of a national Provision for Education. — Obstacles to its Establishment in England. -— Secondary Importance of scholastic Education. — Improvement of the Habitations of the Peasantry. — Retardation of the Progress of Population consequent on Improvement in the Condition of the People. — Moderation of the necessary Restraints upon Marriage. — Means of ameliorating the Situation of Town Labourers. — Insufficiency of high Wages alone to render them comfortable.

— Paramount Importance of Education, and of proper Lodgings. — Limitation of the Labour of Females and young Persons. — Probable Consequences of legislative Interference - - - - . Page 349

Chapter IX. Remedies Foe Over-population In Scotland And Ireland

Similarity of the Measures required in England and in the Lowlands of Scotland. — Defects of the Scotch Poor Law

Inadequacy of the recent Attempt to amend it. — Necessity for an efficient Poor Law in the Highlands. — Restoration of the Class of Crofters. — Probable Advantages of that Course

CONTENTS. XI

both to Landlords and Tenants. — Little Benefit to L-eland to be expected from the Redress of her political Grievances. — Inapplicability to Ireland of most of the Measures recommended for Adoption in Great Britain. — Necessity of providing additional Employment for the People. — Uncertainty of permanent Results of this Kind from Expenditure on public "Works, or on the Reclamation of waste Land. — Sufficiency of the Land at present under Cultivation for the full Employment of the Peasantry. — Defectiveness of the present Tenure of Land. — Exorbitance of Rents. — "Want of Leases. — Profit experienced from the liberal Application of Labour to Agriculture. — Baselessness of Prejudices against Cottier Tenantry. — Necessity for Leases. — Expediency of legislative Interference to enforce the Grant of them. — Location of Poor on waste Land. — Happy Effects already obtained from this Measure. — Possibility of providing for the whole Body of Peasantry by means of a Partition of waste Land. — Duty of Parliament to adopt a Scheme for that Purpose. — Repeal of the "LTnion with Great Britain. — Chances of its ever being effeeted. — Speculations on its ultimate Effects - . - . Page 400

Chapter X

Concluding Reflections. — Prospects of the Stability of national Prosperity - - - - - -441

ITS REMEDY.

CHAPTER!

DEFINITION OF THE TERM OVER-POPULATION, IMPORTANCE

OF THE SUBJECT. OBJECTS AND PLAN OF THE "WORK.

By Over-population is to be understood, throughout the following pages, that condition of a country in which part of the inhabitants, although able-bodied and capable of labour, are permanently unable to earn a sufficiency of the necessaries of life. A country is not necessarily overpeopled merely because it contains a greater number of inhabitants than its own soil can supply with food and clothing, for the natives may nevertheless obtain abundant supplies from abroad; and provided the supplies be adequate and regular, it matters not from whence they come. Neither is population always excessive where people are to be found in a state of destitution, for this destitution may proceed solely from indolence, or from bodily or mental infirmity. But wherever persons, able as well as willing to work, are for many years

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Z DEFINITION.

together unable to procure by labour a competent subsistence, it is clear that there are too many of them, and that the land they inhabit is overpeopled. Further, population may be excessive without being dense. In almost every community, the owners of the soil, or of any considerable amount of other property, are a minority, and many of them must possess a greater quantity, or the means of producing or of purchasing a greater quantity, of food and of other necessaries than they require for their own consumption. Few however will be at the trouble of producing more than they themselves can use, unless they can exchange the surplus for something else. But many of their countrymen have nothing to offer in exchange save personal services, and if there be more applicants for employment than the rich are disposed to employ, the services of all will not be accepted, or if accepted, will be very scantily remunerated, and either food enough for all will not be raised, or when raised, part of it will be sent for sale to a foreign market. In either case, the labouring class is larger than the stock of food to which it has access can properly maintain ; and the country, however thinly inhabited it may be, and although it may be only half cultivated, or may export provisions, is nevertheless overpeopled. It must be observed, however, that in order to indicate over-population, the distress of the working class must -be of long continuance, for merely temporary distress may be produced by famine, commercial vicissitudes, or other accidents, in a country where

DEFINITION. 3

a livelihood may ordinarily be obtained without difficulty.

After this explanation, over-population may be X^^^f' ^ shortly defined to be a deficiency of employment for "^**^ , /, ^ those who live hy labour^ or a redundancy of the [mt^j^'Ij^A labouring class above the number of persons that the fund applied to the remuneration of labour can maintain in comfort. Of all the evils by which a nation ; can be afflicted, this is perhaps the worst. The ' ravages of war and pestilence are only occasional, and may be soon repaired ; a tyrant's caprice and cruelty are felt by comparatively few; and no government, however bad, which does not condemn the mass of its subjects to positive destitution, can avoid leaving them the means of considerable enjoyment. But the bulk of every community consists of persons entirely dependent on their own industry, and where these are too numerous to earn a competent subsistence for themselves and their families, competition takes place amongst them : each, in his anxiety to obtain employment, offers to accept lower wages than he requires for his comfortable maintenance, and, if the competition be sufficiently severe, will take the lowest pittance upon which life can be supported. Entire sections of the labouring class are thus reduced to extreme and almost hopeless misery. Hunger, cold, endurance of every sort of hardship, become the habitual portion of multitudes, nor are the evils of their condition limited to physical suiFerings. Their moral debasement generally keeps pace with their social degradation. The desperate struggle they

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4 MISERY RESULTING

must maintain for existence, their cruel privations, the scenes and practices with which they must become familiar, seldom fail to harden their dispositions, and to make them deceitful, brutal, and dissolute; while the impossibility of materially benefiting themselves by any exertions of their own renders them indolent, and indolence aggravates their wretchedness. Neither has this state of things any tendency to correct itself. Whatever point population may attain, it can with equal ease at least maintain itself there, and the evils of its too great density may be not less lasting than severe.

Now, if this be the condition of the working class, it is no proof of national prosperity that the rest of the people are wealthy and civilised. A nation may be pre-eminent in power and grandeur, and equally distinguished in the arts of war and peace ; native industry and foreign commerce may supply in abundance every requisite for ease and luxury, and to these solid materials of enjoyment may be superadded all the resources of literature and science: still, if these advantages contribute only to the happiness of the few, while the many are sunk in bodily and mental destitution, the lot of such a people is any thing but an enviable one. With all their civilisation and refinement, their condition would not be ill exchanged for that of the rudest horde of wandering Tartars, whose numbers are better proportioned to their means of subsistence. The balance of happiness is apparently in favour of the latter. The conveniences of life may be almost unknown to them, and they

FROM OVER-POPULATION. 5

may have scarcely a trace of intellectual culture ; but if they are acquainted with few enjoyments, they are equally ignorant of the worst kinds of misery ; if none can indulge in luxury, none are exposed to habitual want; to none is existence itself a prolonged penance. The distribution of national wealth is almost of as much consequence as its aggregate amount. A nation has no sense or feeling in its corporate capacity ; it is its individual members that enjoy and suffer. If half of these are miserably poor, it is no consolation to them to know that their countrymen are rolling in riches. If the majority are wretched, no other epithet can properly be applied to the whole body.

To say that this description is generally applicable to the British Islands would no doubt be a gross exaggeration, but it cannot be denied that it would hold good of particular parts of them. The extreme destitution of the Irish peasantry has long been proverbial, and it now appears that a counterpart to it may be found in the Scottish highlands. Even in many English counties, the indigence of agricultural labourers, handloom weavers, and others, is such as can scarcely be paralleled out of the United Kingdom, and shows that we also are following, though happily still at some distance, in the steps of our neighbours. So much misery cannot be contemplated without awakening the intensest sympathy and the most gloomy forebodings. The constant occurrence of the topic in periodical literature, and in political discussion both in and out of parliament, the speeches, reports, and

6 PLAN OF THE WOEK.

paniphlets incessantly devoted to it, evince the deep interest it excites. The present is another attempt to investigate the same engrossing subject. The first object of this essay will be, to determine how far the prevailing distress may be taken as proof of a redundant population. An endeavour will then be made to trace the circumstances in which over-population originated ; and when the causes of the evil seem to have been discovered, suggestions will be offered for its correction. In the course of the inquiry, the three divisions of the kingdom will come separately under consideration, but the largest share of notice will be occupied by Great Britain. To have omitted all mention of Ireland would have been to leave the work obviously incomplete ; but the reference to that unhappy island will be chiefly designed to illustrate the general principles laid down. Her distress, which has already furnished materials for so many volumes, is too deeply rooted and too complicated to admit of satisfactory examination in the few pages which can here be assigned to it.