On the action of examinations considered as a means of selection

Preface

My chief object in writing this book has been to introduce some approach to method in the way of regarding the action of Examinations. This action is complex, and from want of analysis confusion has sometimes arisen, as I have pointed out at the beginning of Chapter v. I must warn the reader that this book is not intended as a manual of the art of examining, but as an enquiry as to what we want to effect by Examinations and how far we can succeed. The art of examining has made great progress of late. Government as well as University Examinations are now conducted with great skill, and we owe to the former various valuable expedients in the way of marking, allowing alternative questions, iv Preface.

and the like, to which I have referred in Chap. ix. on " Marking and Classing."

I should have spoken more particularly than I have done of the Examination for Selection for Indian Civil Service appointments, had not a change in the Regulations as to age been announced while this book was in progress, which will require a fresh plan of Examination.

The changes in the mode of setting and marking the papers which have been made from time to time have remedied many of the evils which existed when I began to write. Half of the Selected Candidates may be considered to take their stand on subjects which result in a practical power, like Classics or Mathematics, and if this power is attained there can be little fault to find with the teaching, wherever it be got. With those, however, who only just succeed, and with the many who fail, the educational effects are still undesirable. A weak man, under the paramount necessity of getting 1200 marks, must "take up" what yields an immediate return, though the diversity may be distracting to him, and his mental build may be such that he should beware of overloading his memory.

Selection by competitive Examinations has many advantages, but it is open to one deep-lying

Preface. V

objection. In the proper education of youth for active careers, such as is received at a good school, instruction and acquirement are much, but very far from all, while for a competitive Examination they are everything. The boy, to obtain the full good out of a healthy school-life, besides getting knowledge, ought to grow in character, to gain the power "of doing the thing he would" and of *' getting on" with other human beings in Various relations. No one expects Examinations to test this, but we look to find a fair share of these qualities in our candidates in addition to the acquirements actually tested. But the Examination may lead to a system of training which checks the growth of those qualities which we hoped our selected candidates would possess as largely as other people. Boys taken out of school-life at fifteen, and stimulated by a morbid concentration of interest on one point, do not expand symmetrically — they have become learners and nothing else. Now we particularly want genial and harmoniously developed young men, and this we can only get by ensuring a genial education. The difficulties in England in the way of giving a preference to certain modes of education are great. The most practicable course which I see is, to adopt a system of sifting the candidates by

b

"VI Preface.

distinctions which should have been previously gained in School, in Local Examinations, or in those of the First Year at a University: money is now wasted by parents on the preparation of youths whose case is hopeless. Certain shortcomings have been remarked in the Selected Candidates which are such as would arise from the cause just indicated, and it has been proposed to induce them to resort to a University after being selected. During this time they would be so engaged in their Oriental studies that they would be isolated from the rest of the University. They might possibly gain " social advantages," though if they felt themselves specially sent to look for them they would be less likely to find them. If at the age of 1 7 or 1 8 they could reside for a year at a University, aiming at the Class in the annual Examinations which should entitle them to compete for Selection, they would then become genuine partakers in University life, they would enter into the University spirit, and, if selected, after the two subsequent years of technical studies they might be enabled in proper course to take a University degree (see Appendix C).

I had to consider whether I should conceive myself as addressing professional readers only, in jvhich case much explanation could be spared, or

Preface. vli

as addressing a wider circle. I have adopted the latter course, because society is now generally interested in Examinations, and it is desirable that their action and the value of their results should be properly understood. When too much value is attached to a place in an Examination list, candidates are rendered morbidly anxious by their fear of disappointing their friends, and teachers are forced, for their credit, to convey something that can be displayed In an Examination, even though, as is especially the case with young boys, the proper course of teaching must be interfered with to effect this object. On the other hand, when the verdict of Examinations is slighted, as has happened sometimes since the reaction against them began, young people harden themselves against the rightful punishment of their inattention by disparaging the instrument which reveals their deficiencies. The more just and discriminating public opinion becomes on these points, and the better it is understood what the decision of an Examination is worth, the less disturbing the action of Examinations will be.

This book has been long in hand, and owing to my College engagements it has been very interruptedly pursued; indeed a portion of it has been in print for some time. I fear that some

b2 vili Preface.

repetition may occur from this cause, but I have now and then designedly repeated a remark rather than weary the reader with constant references. Besides, some readers may only want to refer to a single chapter. I have found it one of the difficulties in the way of putting this subject into shape, that many of the things that had to be said might be introduced equally well under several heads. The subject does not supply a natural order in the mode of dealing with it.

I had originally intended, instead of confining myself mainly to the action of Examinations as a means of Selection, to consider them also as appliances in Education, but I found that the book grew in size, and that circumstances made it desirable that it should appear at once : I hope however to pursue the subject hereafter. I have only touched slightly here on Pass Examinations, because they serve but little as tests. They affect education widely, and call for thorough consideration from this point of view.

The historical portion of my book is subservient to my main object. I have related the growth of our Mathematical Tripos at Cambridge in order to illustrate the working of the principles I wanted to make clear. I have acknowledged my obligations to my authorities, I believe,

Preface. ix

from time to time in my notes ; but I must here mention specially the assistance I have derived from Dr Whe well's books on Education, from Dr Peacock's work on the Statutes of the University, from certain tracts on University matters in the works of Dr Jebb, who was Tutor of St Peter's College about a century ago, and, in my third Chapter especially, to Mr Mullinger's History of the University of Cambridge. I find that I was misled in attributing the story of "Ego currit" passing for grammar among students of the middle ages — to Roger Bacon (p. 13 7). My friend Mr Luard, the Registrary of the University of Cambridge, has pointed it out to me in the Annals of Osney, in the 4th Vol. of Annates Monastici, published by the Master of the Rolls.

Like most persons engaged in Education, I am under the deepest obligation to Dr Carpenter for the instruction derived from his excellent work on Mental Physiology; and I am also much indebted to the Dean of Lincoln, to Mr Henry Sidgwick, to Mr Sayce, to Mr Wilson of Rugby, as well as to various writers in the Quarterly Journal of Education, for valuable information and suggestions.

I have made large use of the Evidence given to the University Commissions of 1854 — 60, and

X Preface,

I have thought it so desirable that the views of the Royal Commission on Scientific Instruction and the advancement of Science, should be accessible to my readers, that I have given large extracts from their Third Report, issued in 1873, in the form of an Appendix.

Trinity Hall, Cambridge, Aiigitsf, 1877.

Chapter I. Introductory

Spread of the Examination system. Its effects, p. i. Two purposes of Examinations, Selection arid Education, p. 3. Liberal and Technical Education, page 5. " Cramming," p. 7. Examinations may be subordinate to teaching, or teaching to Examinations, p. 11. Subjects may be ill suited for Examination yet cannot be omitted, p. 13. Examinations called into use by present circumstances, p. 16. They may be good for youths, but bad for men, p. 19. Neglect of their educational effects, p. 20. Reaction against them, often unreasonable, p, 21.

Chapter II. General View Of The Action Of Examinations

Competitive Examinations do for the young what the struggle of life does for older persons] p. 26. Two objects in Education, to form the mind and to fill' it, p, 29. Qualifying Examinations supply the place of authority, p. 31. Need of stimulants implies imperfection, p. 32. An important Examination calls for effort, p. 35. Good moral effect of making one or two great efforts, p. -^6. Use of Examinations for dispensing patronage, p. 40. Advantageous for the lower appointments, p. 43. Of mixed effect when used for the higher ones, p. 45. Compulsoiy Examinations required under existing circumstances, p. 49. Difficulties, p, 52. The way to get marks may not be the way to profit by learning, p. 53. "Free work," its moral value, p. 55. Parental indulgence makes Examinations more needed, xll Contents.

p. 56. The like case in France, and in Germany, p. 61. Compulsory Military Service an aid to the School-master, p. 63. Independence of German teachers greater than that of French ones, p. 64. Inducements to high cultivation in England, p. 67. Illustration from Cattle Show, p. 71. Part of the pay of the Indian Civil Servants goes to the teacher, p. 72. Essay writing as a mode of Examination (see also Chap, vi.), P-75-

Chapter III

HISTORICAL NOTICES. DISPUTATIONS.

State of things in Europe when Universities arose, p. 'JT. University of Bologna, p. 81 ; of Paris, 83. College system at Paris, p. 84. Technical sense of word "Arts" important, p. 84. Two classes of subjects, those which enable a man to do something answer to " Arts," those which only supply knowledge to "Sciences," in old sense of the words, p. 86. Disputation system gave a conventional form to study, p. 91. First teaching at Universities not Professorial, but a system of mutual instruction, p. 92. Institution of Degrees, p. 93. They, implied always a right to teach, p. 93. Disputation offered a field for distinction, p. 97. The number of students at Universities, p. 100. Effect of B.A. Degree being generally sought for, p. 102. Public interest in disputations, p. 104. They threw all learning into a dialectic form; effects of this, p. 106. They kept authority before men's minds too much, p. 110., Change produced by Reformation in subjects of Disputations not in \h€\r fomi, p. 114. Decline of knowledge of Latin, p. 117. Rise of Physical Science, stage in which it could be used for Disputations, p. 119. Abohtion of Disputations in England, p. 120.

Chapter IV. The Cambridge Mathematical Trifos

Mathematical Tripos ; why chosen as an Example of Examination action, p. 123. Definition of the term Competitive, p. 124.

Content's. xill

How an Order of Merit came to be adopted, p, 125. What facilitated this, p. 126. Name of "Tripos," p. 128. Mode of proceeding on "Tripos" Day, p. 129. Date of Tripos List, p. 133. Proceedings for B.A. Degree a century ago, p. 134. Fellowships came to be given by the Tripos ; importance of this, p. 140. Complaints of neglect of lower subjects, p. 143. Grace of 1779, p. 144. Contest between the two objects, Selection and Education, p. 148. Regulations of 1837, which came . into operation in 1839, p. 149. Mathematical Tripos in its complete form, p. 151. Use in extinguishing jobbery, p. 152, Old "Cambridge Tripos" contrasted with the "Mathematical Tripos," p. 154. Great names, p. 158. Excessive influence of Tripos, p. 162. Teaching adapted to Examinations, p. 163. Private tuition and Mr William Hopkins, p. 165. Objections to private tuition, p. 168. Need for it in Mathematics at the time, p. 171. Analytical and Synthetical methods, p. 172, What Mathematics are taught _/^r, p. 176. Objects different with able students and weak ones, p. 178. Viva voce Examinations, p. 179. Regulations of 1848, p. 181. Universities, seats of learning and places of education, p. 183. Educational interest and scientific interest, p. 184. Scheme of 1873 ; a liberal education combined with a technically scientific one, p. 186. Evils of great extent of course, p. 188. Proposals to divide it into two, viz. an educational Examination containing the subjects most fit for training, and a scientific one comprising those wanted for research, p. 190. Nature of the higher Examination, viva voce, p. 193. Conclusion. Evidence of Mr W. Hopkins, p. 196.

Chapter V

THE FUNCTIONS OF EXAMINATIONS. SELECTION {on score of ability).

First thing to settle, what do we want our scheme to do ? How far can Examinations effect it? p. 199. Examinations used for selection affect education and vice versa, p. 201. Competition, how justified, p. 203. Parcelling out of the subject, p. 204. We may want to use the man or his knowledge, p. 205. Know-

XIV Contents, ledge and ability are blended, p. 206. Indian Examinations used as an illustration, p. 210. Case taken, the finding of the ablest man, p, 212. What do we mean by ability, p. 216. Constituents of the ability recognized by Examination, p. 218. Special skill required to gauge ability, p. 219. Volitional and automatic actions, p. 220. Memory. Its varieties. Portative, Analytical, Assimilative and Index Memory, p. 223. " Cram," p. 229. Analytical Memory, p. 230. Set Subjects, p. 231. Difficulty attaching to them in competition, p. 232. Use of Educational Examinations as sifters for Selection ; value of Set subjects, danger of " Cram," p, 235. There is a change in the kind of merit as well as in the degree, p. 237. Assimilated knowledge the proper field for competition, p. 239. Subjects which yield an " Art " and those which only furnish information, p. 241. The former best for our purpose, p. 242. Students reach a terminal excellence in them, p, 243. Criterion of mental power, p. 245. Minds differ in receptivity of impressions, p. 246. Able men lay hold of the niceties which others miss, p. 247. This comes out in Examination, p. 248. Mental field of view, p. 249. Imagination, p. 251. Volitional and automatic, p. 252. Extract from evidence of Mr R. L. Ellis, p. 254. Dramatic power not tested by Examinations, p. 256. Fertility of mind, p. 257, How to be discovered, p. 260. Essay Writing, p. 261. Essays shew (i) what a man has to say ; (2) how he can say it, p, 262. We may be misled by "original views," p. 263. How Essays may best be used, p. 265. Cases of exceptional action, some persons too honest to make believe, p. 266. Over fertile in thoughts, p. 269. Difficulties that come of special preparation, p. 271. Style, p. 272. What the EngHsh Essay effects, p. 275 — 279. Limitation of time, p. 280. Essays written with ample time and with access to authorities often afford the best kind of Examination for the older class of students, p. 287. Reasoning power, p. 288. Problems not an unfailing test of cleverness, p. 290. How to detect simulated knowledge, p. 293. Moral science and kindred subjects present greater difficulties, p. 294. To judge of ability we must not be bound to award marks for all that is correct, p. 299. What Examinations cannot tell us, p. 300. As, power of dealing with men, p. 301, Taste for research,

Contents. xv p. 302. How to judge of progressive condition, p. 305. Evil of specialising study overmuch, p. 307. In what subjects does excellence shew most ability, and why?, p. 309. Mathematics, Classics, Law, History, and Moral and Natural Science considered, p. 310. A subject to be effective must admit of a definite right and, wrong, p. 313 ; and depend on principles rather than on instances, p. 315. To do well in any good Examination shews a certain power, p. 316, Classification of studies according to mterest in 7nen, objects, or abstractions, p. 318. Studies should supplement one another in these respects, p. 320. We cannot place men in order of ability, p. 321. Great plateau of mediocrity, p. 322. Intennixture of effects, p. 323, We must not conclude that one who does not distinguish himself will not do well in life, p. 325. We might learn from University Statistics how far distinction in life had gone with that obtained in various kinds of study, p. 327.

Chapter VI. Examinations As A Test Of Knowledge

First use of Examinations was to ascertain knowledge, p. "^yi. Such Examinations appended to courses of apprenticeship, p. 331. Pupils were obliged to spend a certain time in learning; this some guarantee that the knowledge would last, p, 333. Professional Examinations ; students want to learn,, and their knowledge is kept up, p. 334. Three points to be ascertained as regards knowledge, p. 338. I. Compass of the knowledge. Contrast between subjects which result in a faculty of doing something, and those which only furnish knowledge, p. 339. Subjects ; mostly contain principles and facts, p. 342. In History, framework of events answers to a principle, p. 344. Moderate knowledge of Experimental Science, p. 347. Its value for educational purposes, p. 348. II. Different sorts of knowledge, p. 349. Knowledge may be serviceable, or only educational, or wholly artificial, p. 352. Educational or Student-knowledge, p. 353. In Mathematics, p. 356, In Historical Subjects, p. 357. Artificial knowledge, p. 358. English LiteraturCj p, 360.. III. Permanency of the knowxvi Contents.

ledge, p. 363. ''Art" subjects, p. 364. Information subjects, p. 365. Conditions favourable for remembering what is learnt, p. 366. The matter must make a strong impression, p. 366. Should be frequently recalled, p. 367. Must not be dismissed as done with, p. 367. It must form a whole, p. 368. Must be compacted together by principles, p. 370, Review of conclusions, p. 372. Modern Languages acquired for use, not for training, p. 374. Ill adapted for competition, p. 375. Advantage of foreign education, p. 2>1^' Mode of dealing with the difficulty, p. -yn. Small need of actual knowledge in business of life, p. 378. Advantages of Examinations attached to a course, p. 380. How are different kinds of knowledge to be valued? p. 381. Some are at the end of a ladder of learning, p. 382. Length of time required for learning, p. 383. Relative ability, p. 385. When certain knowledge is a sine qua non it should be exacted in a qualifying Examination, p. 387. Effect of over marking or under marking a subject, p. 390. Pass or Qualifying Examinations, p. 393. Are for the rich what the School Board is for the poor, p. 394. They mainly afford training, but a residuum remains, p. 395. " Set subjects" in languages, useless as criteria of knowledge of language, p. 397. Translation of " unseen passages," needed in language Examinations; Dictionary may be allowed, p. 398. Value of education for weak men lies less in acquirement than in formation of habits, p. 400. Review of results of Chapter, p. 401. When we want to know What^ and when. How a man has learned, p. 402. Practical conclusions, p. 403. Examinations subordinated to teaching may effect what we need in the way of selection, p. 403. Competitions should not be imposed after twenty-two years of age, p. 404.

Chapter VII. Prize Emoluments In Education

Motives for study, p. 406. Highest kind of cultivation not directly remunerative, p. 408. Endowments which foster education not eleemosynary, because society gets a quid pro quo, p. 410,

Contents. xvii

Application of endowments to cheapen Professional education, p. 412. Fellowships at present the mainspring of our Higher Education, p. 413. The Examinations which lead to them control Education, p. 414. If they aim only at picking out the cleverest men they may be mischievous, p. 415. The contrast between "Open Examinations" for Scholarships at College and School Examinations, p. 418. How far can Examinations framed with an educational view be used for selection ? p. 420. School or University Examinations should be used to sift the candidates for Government posts, p. 423.

Chapter VIII. Examinations For College Fellowships And Scholarships

Functions fulfilled by Fellowships : (i) They recompense students. (2) They serve as " ladders " for poor men to rise by. (3) They serve as part payment of teachers. (4) The Fellows form the Governing Body of the College, p. 424. These functions may be incongruous, and should be assigned to different classes of Fellowships, p. 426. Historical sketch of Fellowships, p. 427. Modes of electing Fellows, p. 429. By Open Special Examinations, or by University Examinations, p. 430. Objections to both systems, p. 432. Plan proposed. Leading objects with a College, to induce able young men to pursue the higher studies, and to obtain a good Governing Body, p. 435. Prize Studentships as pure Rewards, p. 436. Fellowships should be endowments of College offices or of proved distinction. The Fellows should form the Governing Body, p. 437. Professional training needs less encouragement than liberal study, p. 440. Mischief of making University distinction of excessive importance, p. 442. Studentships might be given by this criterion, but not Fellowships, p. 443. University educational Examinations, proposed plan, p. 444. Further examination for those who intend to pursue science or literature as avocation, p. 445. Proportion of funds to be spent in rewards and in providing leaching, p. 446. Love of learning "for its own sake," p. 450.

xviii Contents.

How our Fellowships act, p. 452. How the problems before us are met in Germany, p. 454. College Scholarships, p. 459, (i) used as Prizes to give life to College work; (2) as modes of purchasing clever men for the College, p. 460. Open Scholarships given before residence, p. 464, Rise of the system, p. 464, Condemnation of it by Mr Wilson of Rugby, p. 465. Scholarships given for special branches of knowledge, p. 467. Mercenary spirit, p. 468. Practical difficulties in dropping the plan — disappointment of the expectant class, p. 469. No College can cease to offer such inducements unless all the rest do, p. 470. Palliatives that may be applied to existing system, p. 471.

Chapter IX. On Marking And Classing

Deciding by " marks " and judging by " impression," p. 473. List arranged by number of marks, p. 477. Result depending on the votes of Examiners, p. 477. Marks most easily assigned in Mathematics, p. 478 (note). On the advantage obtained by "training" for display in Examinations, p. 479. Distribution of marks, p. 480. Judging by impression, p. 481. Reasons for difference between results of marking and of impression, p. 482. How it may be reduced, p. 484. Time allowed for papers, p. 485. Mathematical Problem paper, p. 486. Plan for combining scores in various subjects, p. 490. Conflicting advantages of alphabetical arrangement, and one in order of merit, p. 493. An order of merit is practically of service, p. 494, but not equally practicable in all subjects, p. 495. This difficulty may be measured. Index 0/ l7ideterminate?iess, ^p. /i,()6. How to be found for various subjects, p. 497. Division of List into Classes, p. 499. Objections to an order of merit considered, p. 500. Some of them dependent on excessive range of examination, p. 504. Alphabetical Class List : strain falls on those who are uncertain about their class, p. 508. First Class alphabetical; others in order of merit, p. 509. Classing

Contejits. xlx together men of different standing, p. 510, possible expedient, p. 511, vivd voce, p. 512. Expense of Examinations, p. 513. Pass Examinations, standard of marks for passing, one for each subject, and another for the aggregate, p. 514. Pass Examinations have two objects, to sift out incapacity and to map out a course for the less studious, p. 515 ; acquirements less to be looked for than mental occupation and discipline, p. 515. Need of time for forming habits, p. 516. For7n of the subjects important ; can we ensure that the student reads the whole book, p. 516. German plan — suggestion, p. 517. A Pass course a test of moral qualities, resolution, and conduct, p. 517. Free scope for the individual the essence of University life, p. 517. Youths at home or at school may be made to pass University Examinations, but they are not University men, p. 518. Character remains folded up. All that is shewn is mere power of learning, p. 518.

APPENDIX A.

PROPOSED CHANGES WITH RESPECT TO FELLOWSHIPS IN COLLEGE STATUTES.

Fellows, how elected at present, p. 519. Extracts from Reports of Royal Commission on Scientific Instruction. Sects. 164, 165, p. 520. Observations, Extract, Sects. 139 — 159, p. 521. Remarks, p. 529. Need of Examination Halls, Lecture Rooms, and College buildings, p. 531. Notice of the lodging difficulty, p. 532. Remarks on Sect. 158, p. 533.

APPENDIX B.

ON FELLOWSHIPS AS ''LADDERS."

Account of an Article by Mr Henry Sidgwick, of Trinity College, on "Idle Fellowships." Contemporary Review, April, 1876, p. 534. Agreement with general tenour, p. 535 ; up to what point, p. 536.

XX

Contents.

APPENDIX C.

NOTES ON PROFESSORIAL TEACHING.

Professorial system — Is there such a thing? p. 538. Savants and Teachers, 539. Lectures, ex cathedra, like scientific papers, catechetical, which aim at teaching, experimental, p. 540. Students want continuous direction, p. 541. Professors may do good work without lecturing to Students, p. 542. University Fellowships as Pensions for research, p. 543. Provision for Candidates for Indian Civil Service, p. 543.

ERRATA.

ge 5, line 10 from top, for " schooltime" read " school term."

15, ,, 15 ,, dele "generally."

72, ,, 3 from bottom, /or "in" read "into."

88, ,, 5 from top, /or "guage" read "gauge."

149, ,, 3 from bottom, add " which came into operation in 1839."

3S9, ,, 6 from top, /or "Art subjects" read "that of Art subjects."

398, ,, 16 ,, yjir "Examination" r^a^ "an Examination."

Chapter I. Introductory

Within the last thirty years the agency of Examinations has worked a revolution in the whole province of Education.

Examinations more or less competitive now stand at the entrance to many professions ; they are the only means of access to Military, Naval or Civil Service appointments ; and both at school and college valuable monetary help is to be acquired by success in the examination-room. The result is that a clever boy begins to earn his livelihood when he is about fourteen. To excel in examination is a profitable art; it may be called a Profession in itself, and parents and sons consider together as to the best training for this professional course and the best markets for at-

L. I tainments. Young people have often a keener perception In such matters than their fathers have, and thus one indirect effect of this system is to bring about what has been remarked as a feature of our time — the growing independence of parental authority on the part of the rising generation. Such independence in the case of an able youngster who is thus beginning to earn his own bread may not be injurious ; he may be of too fine a nature to fail in filial respect or affection ; but this independent spirit may spread to others so as to vv^eaken authority in a way that we should lament. I have touched on this point, because it shews how Examinations make their influence felt in reofions which seem out of their domain.

I shall hereafter shew how an Examination system is from its nature an encroaching power, how it influences the prevalent views of life and work among young men, and how it affects parents, teachers, the writers of educational books, and the notions of the public about education. But before proceeding further, we have to draw some distinctions with a view of arriving at something like order in dealing with a very tangled subject. Examinations are used for many purposes, and many of the difficulties and evils connected with their use arise from the attempt of those who in the Higher Education.

frame the Examinations, either to effect too many things by one instrument ; as, for instance, to pick out the most proficient, to reject the dunces, and to give an impetus to a certain kind of study all by the same series of papers ; or from their not having a clear view of what they are aiming at.

We may discriminate two kinds of action as being very distinct, and though most Examinations will act more or less in both ways at once, yet we can consider the two kinds of action separately ; and it will be serviceable to us, in this rough attempt to consider Examinations systematically, to lay down two heads of classification, according to the object for which they are especially used, .

We shall have then : (i) That in which the object is to select the most suitable persons for a certain purpose, or the men of most general ability.