The old Roman world: the grandeur and failure of its civilization

Chapter I. The Conquests Of The Romans

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Early History of Rome — Wars under the Kings — Their Results

— Gradual Subjection of Italy — Great Heroes of the Repub- _ Kc — Their Virtues and Victories — Military Aggrandizement

— The Carthaginian, Macedonian, and Asiatic Wars — Their Consequences — Civil Wars of Marius and Sulla, of Pompey and Caesar — The Conquests of the Barbarians — Extension of Roman Dominion in the East — Conquests of the Emperors — The Military Forces of the Empire — Military Science — The Roman Legion — T' .e Military Genius of the Romans, 19

CHAPTER n.

THE MATERIAL GRANDEUR AND GLORY OF THE ROMAN

EMPIRE.

The vast Extent of the Empire — Boundaries — Rivers and Mountains — The Mediterranean and its Islands — The Provinces — Principal Cities — Great Architectural Monuments — Roads — Commerce — Agriculture — Manufactures — Wealth

— Population — Unity of the Empire, 71

Chapter III. The Wonders Of Ancient Rome

Original Settlement — The Seven Hills — Progress of the City

— Principal Architectural Monuments — A Description of the Temples, Bridges, Aqueducts, Forums, Basilicas, Palaces, Amphitheatres, Theatres, Circuses, Columns, Arches, Baths, Obeiv Contents,

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lisks, Tombs — Miscellaneous Antiquities — Streets — Gardens

— Private Houses — Populous Quarters — Famous Statues and Pictures — General Magnificence — Population, 100

Chapter IV. Art In The Roman Empire

The great Wonders of Ancient Architecture, Sculpture, and Painting — Famous Artists of Antiquity — How far the Romans copied the Greeks — How far they extended Art — Its Principles — Its Perfection — Causes of its DecUne — Permanence of its grand Creations, 139

Chapter V. The Roman Constitution

The Original Citizens — Comitia Calata — Comitia Curiata — Comitia Centuriata — Comitia Tributa — The Plebs — Great Patrician Families — The Aristocratic Structure of ancient Roman Society — The Dignity and Power of the Senate — The Knights — The Growth of the Democracy — Contests between Patricians and Plebeians — Rise of Tribunes — Popular Leaders — Their Laws — The Great Officers of State — Provincial Governors — Usurpations of fortunate Generals — The Revolution under Julius Caesar and Augustus — Imperial Despotism

— Preservation of the Forms of the Republic, and utter Pros* tration of its Spirit, 189

Chapter VI. Roman Jurisprudence

Genius of the Romans for Government and Laws — Development of Jurisprudence — Legislative Sources — Judicial Power

— Courts of Law — The Profession of Law — Great Lawyers and Jurists — Ancient Codes — Imperial Codes — The Law of Persons — Rights of Citizens, of Foreigners, of Slaves — Laws of Marriage, of Divorce, of Adoption — Paternal Power — Guardianship — Laws relating to Real Rights — Law of Obligations— Laws of Succession — Testaments and Legacies — Actions and Procedure in Civil Suits — Criminal Law, 223

Contents, v

Chapter VII. Roman Literature

PAGE

The Grecian Models — How far they contributed to Roman Creations — The Development of the Latin Language — The Orators, Poets, Dramatists, Satirists, Historians, and their chief Works — How far Literature was cultivated — Schools — Libraries — Literary Legacies of the Romans,: 262

CHAPTER Vm.

GRECIAN PHILOSOPHY.

Its gradual Development from Thales to Aristotle — How far the Romans adopted the Greek Philosophy — What Additions they made to it — How far it modified Roman Thought and Life — Influence of Philosophy on Christianity — Influence on modern Civilization, 306

Chapter IX. Scientific Knowledge Among The Romans

The Mathematical Genius of the Old Astronomers — Their Labors and Discoveries — Extent of Astronomical Knowledge — The Alexandrian School — The Science of Geometry and how far carried — Great Names — Medicine — Geography — Other Physical Sciences and their limited Triumphs, 353

Chapter X. Internal Condition Of The Roman Empire

The Vices and Miseries of Roman Society — Social Inequalities — Disproportionate Fortunes — The Wealth and Corruption of Nobles — Degradation of the People — Vast Extent of Slavery — The Condition of Women — Demoralizing Games and Spectacles — Excessive Luxury and squalid Misery — Money-making — Imperial Misrule — Universal Egotism and Insensibility to grand Sentiments — Hopelessness of Reform — Preparation for Ruin, 387 vi Contents.

CHAPTER XL

THE FALL OF THE EMPIRE.

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False Security of the Roman People — Their stupendous Delusions — The Invasion of Barbarians — Their Characteristics — Their alternate Victory and Defeat — Desolation of the Provinces— The Degeneracy of the Legions — General Imbecility and Cowardice — Great public Misfortunes — General Union of the Germanic Nations — Their Leaders — Noble but vain Efforts of a Succession of warlike Emperors — The rising Tide of Barbarians — Their irresistible Advance — The Siege and Sack of Rome — The Fall of Cities — Miseries of all Classes — Universal Despair and Ruin — The Greatness of the Catastrophe — Reflections on the Fall of Rome, 436

CHAPTER XIL

THE REASONS WHY THE CONSERVATIVE INFLUENCES OF PAGAN CIVILIZATION DID NOT ARREST THE RUIN OF THE ROMAN WORLD.

Necessary Corruption of all Institutions under Paganism — Glory succeeded by Shame — The Army a worn-out Mechanism — The low Aims of Government — Difficulties of the Emperors — Laws perverted or unenforced — The Degeneracy of Art — The Frivolity of Literature — The imperfect Triumph of Philosophy — Nothing Conservative in human Creations — Necessity of Aid from foreign and Divine Sources, 493

CHAPTER Xm.

WHY CHRISTIANITY DID NOT ARREST THE RUIN OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE.

The Victories of Christianity came too late — Small Number of Converts when Christianity was a renovating Power — Their comparative Unimportance in a political and social View for three Centuries — The Church constructs a Polity for Itself rather than seeks to change established Institutions — Rapid Corruption of Christianity when established, and Adoption of Pagan Ideas and Influences — No Renovation of worn-out Races — No Material on which Christianity could work — Not

Contents. vii

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the Mission of the Church to save Empires, but the Race — A diseased Body must die, 537

CHAPTER XIV.

THK LEGACY OF THE EARLY CHURCH TO FUTURE GEN- ERATIONS.

The great Ideas which the Fathers propounded — The Principle of Self-sacrifice, seen especially in early Martyrdoms — The Idea of Benevolence in connection with public and private Charities — Importance of public Preaching — Pulpit Oratory — The Elaboration of Christian Doctrine — Its Connection with Philosophy — Church Psalmody — The Principle of Christian Equality — Its Effects on Slavery and the Elevation of the People — The Social Equality of the Sexes — Superiority in the condition of the modern over the ancient Woman — The Idea of Popular Education — The Unity of the Church, 576

Introduction

I PROPOSE to describe the Greatness and the Misery of the old Roman world ; nor is there any thing in history more suggestive and instructive.

A little city, founded by robbers on the banks of the Tiber, rises gradually into importance, although the great cities of the East are scarcely conscious of its existence. Its early siruggles simply arrest the attention, and excite the jealousy, of the neighboring nations. The citizens of this little state are warriors, and, either for defense or glory, they subdue one after another the cities of Latium and Etruria, then the whole of Ita'y, and finally the old monarchies and empires of the world. In two hundred and fifty years the citizens have become nobles, and a great aristocracy is founded, which lasts eight hundred years. Their aggressive policy and unbounded ambition involve the whole world in war, which does not cease until all the nations known to the Greeks acknowledge their sway. Everywhere Roman laws, language, and institutions spread. A vast empire arises, larger than the Assyrian and the Macedonian combined, — a universal empire, — a great wonder and mystery, having all the grandeur of a providential event. It becomes too great to be governed by an oligarchy of nobles. Civil wars create an imperator, who, uniting in himself all the great offices of state, and sustained by the conquering legions, rules from East to West and from North to South, with absolute and undivided sovereignty. The CaBsars reach the summit of human greatness and power, and the city of Romulus becomes the haughty mistress of the world. The emperor is worshiped as a deity, and the proud metropolis calls herself eternal. An empire is established by force of arms and by a uniform policy, such as this world has not seen before or since.

Early Roman history is chiefly the detail of successful wars, aggressive and uncompromising, in which we see a fierce and selfish patriotism, an indomitable will, a hard unpitying temper, great practical sagacity, patience, and perseverance, superiority to adverse fortune, faith ir. national destinies, heroic sentiments, and grand ambition. We see a nation of citizen soldiers, an iron race of conquerors, bent on conquest, on glory, on self-exaltation, attaching but little value to the individual man, but exalting the integrity and unity of the state. We see no fitful policy, no abandonment to the enjoyment of the fruits of victory, no rest, no repose, no love of art or literature, but an unbounded passion for domination. The Romans toiled, and suffered, and died, — never wearied, never discouraged, never satisfied, until their mission was accomplished and the world lay bleeding and prostrate at their feet.

In the latter days of the Republic, the Roman citizen, originally contented with a few acres in the plains and valleys through which the Tiber flowed, becomes a great landed proprietor, owning extensive estates in the conquered territories, an aristocrat, a knight, a senator, a noble, while his dependents disdained to labor and were fed at the public expense. The state could afford to give them corn, oil, and wine, for it was the owner of Egypt, of Greece, of Asia Minor, of Syria, of Spain, of Gaul, of Africa, — a belt of territory around the Mediterranean Sea one thousand miles in breadth, embracing the whole temperate zone, from the Atlantic Ocean to the wilds of Scythia. The Romans revel in the spoils of the nations they have conquered, adorn their capital with the wonders of Grecian art, and abandon themselves to pleasure and money-making. The Roman grandees divide among themselves the lands and riches of the world, and this dwelling-place of princes looms up the proud centre of mundane glory and power.

In the great success of the Romans, we notice not only their own heroic qualities, but the hopeless degeneracy of the older nations and the reckless turbulence of the western barbarians, both of whom needed masters.

The conquered world must be governed. The Romans had a genius for administration as well as for war. While war was reduced to a science, government became an art. >^ Seven hundred years of war and administration gave experience and skill, and the wisdom thus learned became a legacy to future civilizations.

It was well, both for enervated orientals and wild barbarians, to be ruled by such iron masters. The nations at last enjoyed peace and prosperity, and Christianity was born and spread. A new power silently arose, which was destined to change government, and science, and all the relations of social life, and lay a foundation for a new and more glorious structure of society than what Paganism could possibly create. We see the hand of Providence in all these mighty changes, and it is equally august in overruling the glories and the shame of a vast empire for the ultimate good of the human race.

If we more minutely examine the history of either Republican or Imperial Rome, we read lessons of great significance. In the Republic we see a constant war of classes and interests, — plebeians arrayed against patricians ; the poor opposed to the rich ; the struggle between capital and labor, between an aristocracy and democracy. Although the favored classes on the whole retained ascendancy, yet the people constantly gained privileges, and at last were enabled, by throwing their influence into the hands of demagogues, to overturn the constitution. Julius Ciesar, the greatest name in ancient history, himself a patrician, by courting the people triumphed over the aristocratical oligarchy and introduced a new regime. His dictatorship was the consummation of the victories of the people over nobles as signally as the submission of all classes to fortunate and unscrupulous generals.

We err, however, in supposing that the Republic was ever a democracy, as we understand the term, or as it was understood in Athens. Power was always in the hands of senators, nobles, and rich men, as it still is in England, and was in Venice. Popular liberty was a name, and democratic institutions were feeble and shackled. The citizen-noble was free, not the proletarian. The latter had the redress of laws, but only such as the former gave. How exclusive must have been an aristocracy when the Claudian family boasted that, for five hundred years, it had never received any one into it by adoption, and when the Emperor Nero was the first who received its privileo;es ! It is with the senatorial families, who contrived to retain all the great offices of the state, that everything interesting in the history of RepubHcan Rome is identified, — whether poUtical quarrels, or private feuds, or legislation, or the control of armies, or the improvements of the city, or the government of provinces. It was they, as senators, governors, consuls, generals, quaestors, who gave the people baths, theatres, and temples. They headed factions as well as armies. They were the state.

The main object to which the reigning classes gave their attention was war, — the extension of the empire. " JJbi castra^ ihi respuhlica.^^ Republican Rome was a camp, controlled by aristocratic generals. Dominion and conquest were their great ideas, their aim, their ambition. To these were sacrificed pleasure, gain, ease, luxury, learning, and art. And when they had conquered they sought to rule, and they knew how to rule. Aside from conquest and government there is nothing peculiarly impressive in Roman history, except the struggles of poHtical leaders and the war of classes.

But in these there is wonderful fascination. The mythic period under kings ; the contests with Latins, Etruscans, Volscians, Samnites, and Gauls; the legends of Porsenna, of Cincinnatus, of Coriolanus, of Virginia ; the heroism of Camillus, of Fabius, of Decius, of Scipio ; the great struggle with Pyrrhus and Hannibal ; the wars with Carthage, Macedonia, and Asia Minor ; the rivalries between patrician and plebeian families ; the rise of tribunes ; the Maenian, Hortensian, and Agrarian laws ; the noble efforts of the Gracchi ; the censorship of Cato ; the civil wars of Marius and Sulla, and their exploits, followed by the still greater conquests of Pompey and Julius ; these, and other feats of heroism and strength, are full of in'':erest which can never be exhausted. We ponder on tliem in youth ; we return to them in old age.

And yet the real grandeur of Rome is associated with the emperors. With their accession there is a change in the policy of the state from war to peace. There is a greater desire to preserve than extend the limits of the empire. The passion for war is succeeded by a passion for government and laws. Labor and toil give place to leisure and enjoyment. Great works of art appear, and these become historical, — the Pantheon, the Forum Augusti, the Flavian Amphitheatre, the Column of Trajan, the Baths of Caracalla, the Aqua Claudia, the golden house of Nero, the Mausoleum of Hadrian, the Temple of Venus and Rome, the Arch of Septimus Severus. The city is changed from brick to marble, and palaces and theatres and temples become colossal. Painting and sculpture ornament every part of the city. There are more marble busts than living men. Life becomes more complicated and factitious. Enormous fortunes are accumulated. A liberal patronage is extended to artists. Literature declines, but great masterpieces of genius are still produced.

Medicine, law, and science flourish. A beautiful suburban life is seen on all the hills, while gardens and villas are the object of perpetual panegyric. From all corners of the earth strangers flock to see the wonders of the mighty metropolis, more crowded than London, more magnificent than Paris, more luxurious than New York. Fetes, shows, processions, gladiatorial combats, chariot races, form the amusement of the vast populace. A majestic centralized power controls all kingdoms, and races, and peoples. The highest state of prosperity is reached that the ancient world knew, and all bow down to Csesar and behold in him the representative of divine providence, from whose will there is no appeal, and from whose arm it is impossible to fly.

But mene^ mene^ teJcel, upharsin^ is written on the walls of the banqueting chambers of the palace of the Csesars. The dream of omnipotence is disturbed by the invasion of Germanic barbarians. They press toward the old seats of power and riches to improve their condition. They are warlike, fierce, implacable. They fear not death, and are urged onward by the lust of rapine and military zeal. The old legions, which penetrated the Macedonian phalanx and withstood the Gauls, cannot resist the shock of their undisciplined armies ; for martial glory has fled, and the people prefer their pleasures to the empire. Great emperors are raised up, but they are unequal to the task of preserving the crumbling empire. The people, enervated and egotistical, are scattered like sheep or are made slaves. The proud capitals of the world fall before the ruthless invaders. Desolation is everywhere. The barbarians trample beneath their heavy feet the proud trophies of ancient art and power. The glimmering lifesparks of the old civilization disappear. The world is abandoned to fear, misery, and despair, and there is no help, for retributive justice marches on with impressiv^e solemnity. Imperial despotism, disproportionate fortunes, unequal divisions of society, the degradation of woman, slavery, Epicurean pleasures, practical atheism, bring forth their wretched fruits. The vices and miseries of society cannot be arrested. Glory is succeeded by shame ; all strength is in mechanism, and that wears out ; vitality passes away ; the empire is weak from internal decay, and falls easily into the hands of the new races. " Violence was only a secondary cause of the ruin ; the vices of self-interest were the primary causes. A world, as fair and glorious as our own, crumbles away." Our admiration is changed to sadness and awe. The majesty of man is rebuked by the majesty of God.

Such a history is suggestive. Why was such an empire permitted to rise over the bleeding surface of the world, and what was its influence on the general destiny of the race ? How far has its civilization perished, and how ikr has it entered into new combinations ? Was its strength material, or moral, or intellectual? How far did literature, art, science, laws, philosophy, prove conservative forces? Why did Christianity fail to arrest so total an eclipse of the glory of man ? Why did a magnificent civilization prove so feeble a barrier against corruption and decay ? Why was the w^orld to be involved in such universal gloom and wretchedness as followed the great catastrophe ? Could nothing arrest the stupendous downfall ?

And when we pass from the great facts of Roman history to the questions which it suggests to a contemplative mind in reference to the state of society among ourselves, on which history ought to shed light, what enigmas remain to be solved. Does moral worth necessarily keep pace with aesthetic culture, or intellectual triumphs, or material strength ? Do the boasted triumphs of civilization create those holy certitudes on which happiness is based ? Can vitality in states be preserved by mechanical inventions ? Does society expand from inherent laws of development, or from influences altogether foreio-n to man ? Is it the settled destiny of nations to rise to a certain height in wisdom and power, and then pass away in ignominy and gloom? Is there permanence in any human institutions? Will society move round in perpetual circles, incapable of progression and incapable of rest, or will it indefinitely improve ? May there not be the highest triumphs of art, literature, and science, where the mainsprings of society are sensuality and egotism? Is the tendency of society to democratic, or aristocratic, or despotic governments? Does Christianity, in this dispensation, merely furnish witnesses of truth, or will it achieve successive conquests over human degeneracy till the race is emancipated and saved ? Can it arrest the downward tendency of society, when it is undermined by vices which blunt the conscience of mankind, and which are sustained by all that is proud in rank, brilliant in fashion, and powerful in wealth ?

These are inquiries on which Roman history sheds light. If history is a guide or oracle, they are full of impressive significance. Can we afford to reject all the examples of the past in our sanguine hopes for the future ? Human nature is the same in any age, and human experiences point to some great elemental truths, which the Bible confirms. We may be unmoved by them, but they remain in solemn dignity for all generations ; " and foremost of them," as Charles Kingsley has so well said, " stands a law which man has been trying in all ages, as now, to deny, or at least to ignore, and that is, — that as the fruit of righteousness is wealth and peace, strength and honor, the fruit of unrighteousness is poverty and anarchy, weakness and shame ; for not upon mind^ but upon morals^ is human welfare founded. Science is indeed great ; but she is not the greatest. She is an instrument, and not a power. But her lawful mistress, the only one under whom she can truly grow, and prosper, and prove her divine descent, is Virtue, the likeness of Almighty God, — an anciont doctrine, yet one ever young, and which no discoveries in science will ever abrofTate."

Hence the great aim of history should be a dispassionate inquiry into the genius of past civiHzations, especially in a moral point of view. Wherem were they weak or strong, vital or mechanical, permanent or transient ? "We wish to know that we may compare them with our own, and learn lessons of wisdom. The rise and fall of the Roman Empire is especially rich in the facts which bear on our own development. Nor can modern history be comprehended without a survey of the civilization which has entered into our own, and forms the basis of many of our own institutions. Rome perished, but not wholly her civilization. So far as it was founded on the immutable principles of justice, or beauty, or love, it will never die, but will remain a precious legacy to all generations. So far as it was founded on pride, injustice, and selfishness, it ignobly disappeared. Men die, and their trophies of pride are buried in the dust, but their truths live. All truth is indestructible, and survives both names and marbles.

Roman history, so grand and so mournful, on the whole suggests cheering views for humanity, since out of the ruins, amid the storms, aloft above the conflagration, there came certain indestructible forces, which, when united with \ Christianity, developed a new and more glorious condition of humanity. Creation succeeded destruction. All that was valuable in art, in science, in literature, in philosophy, in laws, has been preserved. The useless alone has perished with the worn-out races themselves. The licrht which scholars, and artists, and poets, and philosophers, and lawgivers kindled, illuminated the path of the future guides of mankind. And especially the great ideas which the persecuted Christians unfolded, projected themselves into the shadows of mediaeval Europe, and gave a new direction to human thought and life. New sentiments arose, more poetic and majestic than ever existed in the ancient world, giving radiance to homes, peace to families, elevation to woman, liberty to the slave, compassion for the miserable, self-respect to the man of toil, exultation to the martyr, patience to the poor, and glorious hopes to all ; so that in rudeness, in poverty, in discomfort, in slavery, in isolation, in obloquy, peace and happiness were born, and a new race, with noble elements of character, arose in the majesty of renovated strength to achieve still grander victories, and confer hio-her blessino-s on mankind.

Thus the Roman Empire, whose fall was so inglorious, and whose chastisement was so severe, was made by Providence to favor the ultimate progress of society, since its civilization entered into new combinations, and still remains one of the proudest monuments of human genius.

It is this civilization, in its varied aspects, both good and evil, lofty and degraded, which in the following chapters I seek to show. This is the real point of interest in Roman history. Let us see what the Romans really accomplished — the results of their great enterprises ; the systems they matured w^ith so much thought ; the institutions they bequeathed to our times ; yea, even those vices and follies which they originally despised, and which, if allowed to become dominant, must^ according to all those laws of which we have cognizance, ultimately overwhelm any land in misery, shame, and ruin.

In presenting this civilization, I aim to generalize the most important facts, leaving the reader to examine at his leisure recondite authorities, in wdiich, too often, the argument is obscured by minute details, and art is buried in learning.

THE OLD ROMAN WORLD.

Chapter I. The Conquests Of The Romans

One of the features of Roman greatness, which preeminently arrests attention, is mihtary genius and strength. The Romans surpassed all the nations of antiquity in the brilliancy and solidity of their conquests. They conquered the world, and held it in subjection. For many centuries they stamped their iron heel on the necks of prostrate and suppliant kings, from the Atlantic Ocean to the Caspian Sea. Nothing could impede, except for a time, their irresistible progress from conquering to conquer. They were warriors from the earliest period of their history, and all their energies were concentrated upon conquest. Their aggressive policy never changed so long as there was a field for its development. They commenced as a band of robbers ; they ended by becoming masters of all the countries and kingdoms which tempted their cupidity or aroused their ambition. Their empire was universal, — the only universal empire which ever existed on this earth, — and it was won with the sword. It was not a rapid conquest, but it was systematic and irresistible, evincing great genius, perseverance, and fortitude. . The successive and fortunate conquests of the Romans were the admiration, the envy, and the fear of all The Romans

1 1 PIT ^Stifc from a

nations — so marvelous and successiul that they fixed purpose

20 The Coyiquests of the Romans. [Chap, l

have the majesty of a providential event. They cannot be called a mystery, since we see the persistent adaptation of means to an end. But no other nation ever evinced this uniform military policy, except for a limited period, or under the stimulus of a temporary enthusiasm, such as characterized the Saracens and the Germanic barbarians. The Romans fought when there was no apparent need of fighting, when their empire already embraced' most of the countries known to tlie ancients. The Egyptians, the Assyrians, the Persians, and the Greeks made magnificent conquests, but their empire was partial and limited, and soon passed away. The Greeks evinced great mihtary genius, and the enterprises of Alexander have been regarded as a wonder. But the Greeks did not fight, as the Romans did, from a fixed purpose to bring all nations under their sway, and they yielded, in turn, to the Romans. The Romans were never subdued, but all nations were subdued by them — even superior races. They erected a universal monarchy, which fell to pieces by its own weight, when the vices of self-interest had accomplished their work. They became the prey of barbarians in a very different sense from that which reduced the ancient empires. They did not yield to any powerful, warlike neighbor, as the Persians yielded to the Greeks, but to successive waves of unknown warriors who came in quest of settlement, and then only when all Roman vigor had fled, and the whole policy of the empire was changed — when it was tlie aim of emperors to conserve old conquests, not make new ones.

With the Romans, for a thousand years, war was a paswarapas- siou ; and, while it lasted, it consumed all other

Bion with the . ^ . ^

Romans. passious. It aumiatcd statesmen, rulers, generals, and citizens alike, ever burning, never at rest, — a passion unscrupulous, resistless, all-pervading, all-absorbing, all-conquering. Success in war gave consideration, dignity, honor beyond all other successes. It always has called out popular admiration, and its glory has ever been

Chap. I.] Roman Military Art, 21

highly prized, and it always will be so, but it has not monopolized all offices and dignities as among the Romans. The Greeks thought of art, of literature, and of philosophy as well as of war, and gave their crowns of glory for civic and artistic excellence as well as for military success. The Greeks fought to preserve or extend their civilization ; the Romans, in order to rule. They had very little respect for any thing beyond military genius. The successful warrior alone was the founder of a great family. The Roman aristocracy, so proud, so rich, so powerful, was based on the glory of battle-fields. Every citizen was trained to arms, and senators and statesmen commanded armies. The whole fabric of the State was built up on war, and for many centuries it was the leading occupation of the people. How insignificant was a poet, or a painter, or a philosopher by the side of a warrior ! Rome was a city of generals, and they preoccupied the public mind.