The mystery of mind

Front matter

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Preface

Tuts book is primarily intended for the reader who has not made a special study of modern psychology. Its purpose is to acquaint such a reader with the nature of the problems which this science is considering, and to reveal the importance of these problems for human life. “Psychology” is a word which is upon everyone’s tongue at the present day. But there are few who use the word who realize all that it really represents. Popular references to “‘psychology”” sometimes point in the right direction, but they seldom touch any feature of mind which is fundamental or general. They flit eccentrically over the surface of a great subject. They graze it where its features are bizarre or of passing practical interest. They do not dig through the crust of commonplaceness hiding the astonishing details which underlie our everyday mental processes. Consequently I have endeavored in the present volume to outline the tasks of scientific psychology so that the lay reader will appreciate their true nature and significance.

However, this does not necessarily mean that there is nothing here for the reader who considers himself well versed in modern psychology. There are many different editions of this science, and I trust that in my version there is some small degree of novelty and of contribution to progress. Simplification of statement is not entirely unwelcome even to a sophisticated reader, in his leisure hours. Moreover, it is hoped that the emphasis upon the mystery and romance of mind may carry some message of inspiration even to the professional psychologist, who often becomes swamped in technical details and loses his vision of the whole. Some of my colleagues do not seem to appreciate the mysteriousness of mind, because they have become so used to studying it. Possibly some of them believe that they have succeeded in dissipating all of the mysteries! If so they need to awake and rub their mental eyes and take a general view once more.

vii vill PREFACE

On the practical side, I wish to acknowledge my indebtedness to several persons. Firstly, to my good friend, M. Luckiesh for the opportunity to include a book in the present series. Secondly, to my wife for her assistance and encouragement in the preparation of the manuscript. And finally to Mr. A. D. Fuller, Jr., one of my students in psychology, for his helpful criticism of the method and style of presentation.

L. T. TROLAND HarvVARD UNIVERSITY, Nov. I, 1925

Contents

CHAPTER I PAGE SPOT OGYVAND. FLUMAN PROGRESS 66.0 0)5)4sidiekc lev eiele da ds wa bie'cceediae I “Psychic Phenomena.” The Special Applications of Psychology. The General Application of Psychology. The Roots of Practicality. The Pursuit of Happiness Through Psychological Knowledge. Complete Technology. Psychology and Religion.

Chapter II

TSIEN cron GEV cs acalleln Aiea) ani oe ahs ows lated wal al ty ecb ara ale et ois ein shall 14 What is the Meaning of “I”? Am I a Body? The Self. The Soul. The Inadequacy of the Soul Theory. Am Ia Mind? What is Mind? The Unconscious Mind. The Subconscious Mind. Mind in Consciousness.

Chapter III

IA TURE) OF) CONSCIOUSNESS. 3.055 65 ciscleleleeeiicccdnlbicesicevewegses 28 The Constituents of Consciousness. The Internal Sensations. The External Sensations. Space Forms in Consciousness. External Objects in Consciousness. Space as Part of Consciousness. General Definitions of Consciousness. Conscious Individuals. Consciousness as the “Self.”

Chapter IV

I TMC rs) J le) shah.s) aban tb halle nia la tel alace aie oa al aia. wh glelacpidineln Gale 4 44 The Physicist’s Method. Enlarging the World. Subdividing the World. Atoms. Radioactivity. Electromagnetic Waves. Chemical Action. Heat. Solid, Liquid and Gas. Electric Currents. Life and Biology. Is the Physical World in Consciousness? The Relativity Principle. The Separateness of the Physical and the Psychical.

Chapter V

THE INTERRELATIONS OF CONSCIOUSNESS AND MATTER..............05- 61 The Relation of Internal Sensations to the Body. The Part Played by Nerves. The Nature of Nerves. Sensation and the Brain. The Cerebral Cortex. The Relation of Sensation to the Cortex. The Relation of External Sensation to the Body. External Sensations and the Cortex. Consciousness in General and the Cortex.

x CONTENTS

Chapter VI

SENSATION AS THE FOUNDATION OF MIND... 00.%5)6. 6.034500 mee pee The Nature of Sensation. What Happens in “Seeing.” The Visual Nerve Activity. Vision and the Cortex. Sensation vs. Perception. The Problem of Visual Perception. The Problems of Visual Sensation.

Chapter VII

BEHAVIOR AS THE. EXPRESSION OF, MIND. 20.0050, 6 05% susp ot ee ee How are Bodily Movements Controlled? The Nature of “Response.” The Cortex as a Switchboard. The Relation of Behavior to Consciousness. Excitation Patterns. Perception and Behavior. Imagination and Association. Attention and Action. The Nature of “Will.” Thought and Action. Effort. Conclusion.

Chapter VIII

Way Propis Benave as; THEY: DOs. i 0 iepcweaas sc. see The Properties of Nerve Currents. Synaptic Resistance. The Distribution of Cortical Resistances. Non-Cortical “ Reflexes.” How is Cortical Resistance Regulated? ‘Trial and Error.” The Principle of Selection. Cortical Encouragers and Discouragers. “Neutral” Senses. The Basis of Habit Formation.

CHAPTER IX Tse ROLE or FEELING IN CONSCIOUSNESS. 0..,.4...¢:4...5.6 he eee

The Nature of “Feeling.” Feeling and Learning. ‘‘Hedonism.” Hed-

onism of the Past. The Measurement of Feeling. Physiological Relations of our Hedonism.

Chapter X

THe PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HIGHER FEELINGS. .\. 2.0.0.0: ss ses ene eee The Law of Exercise. The Pleasure of Novelty. The Law of Decay. Unpleasantness and the Decay Law. The Formation of Complexes. Principles of “Association.” Kinds of Complexes. The Properties of Complexes. Instincts in Relation to Complexes. Emotions.

Chapter XI

HouMAN HAPPINESS AND PERSONALITY. \0)4.0. 05 %des sss ok ser vet one Hereditary Differences Between Individuals. Development of the Child. The Réle of Language. Belief and Moral Suasion. Changes Due to Age. Egoism vs. Altruism. Repressed Complexes. The Nature of Emotions. The Réle of Thought.

‘114

CONTENTS

CHAPTER XII Meet OR NERVE ACTION. 6 sce case de sbcsvaneecbesdeseuuus

The Physical Structure of Nerve. “Polarization.” Excitation and Conduction. The Basis of “Excitability.”” The Mechanism of Conduction. The Basis of the Excitation Threshold. The “All-or-None”’ Law. The Basis of Variations in Nerve Currents. The Physics of Synaptic Resistance.

Chapter XIII

THE FUNDAMENTAL RELATIONS OF CONSCIOUSNESS AND ELECTRICITY..... The Unity of the Nerve Process. The Structural Relations of Consciousness and Cortex. Elements of Consciousness and Cortex. ‘The Case For the Visual Elements. The Nature of the Visual Nerve Currents. What Happens in the Visual Cortex. The Relation of Quality to Physical Structure. The Physical Basis of Conscious Structure.

Chapter XIV

EG LOTT SE ETN) C05 5. 6 is Gx’ tie'vis te VAG lsiae ony Lge e Wola alee al aw dele" Resumé. The Central Brain Process. The Location of the Central Process. The Basis of Attention. The Nature of “Interest.” The Nature of the Subconscious. The Physiological Basis of the Subconscious. Sentiency. The Boundaries of the Subconscious. The Relations of Conscious and Subconscious. Sentiency Beyond the Subconscious?

Chapter XV

ME CONSCIOUS VEEND Yoo rain oso be aca tisivarg cies ee ee re Slee a ed's eae e's Deducing the Panpsychic Universe. Chemistry and Sentiency. Sentient Boundaries. The Rédle of Feeling in the Panpsychic World. Pleasantness and “Congregation.” Feeling and Energy Transformation. The Struggle for Pleasure. Sentient Evolution. Other Aspects of the Sentient Universe. The Unreality of the Physical Universe. Idealism.

Chapter I Psychology And Human Progress

THE popular conception of the province of psychology is largely erroneous. People say that psychology is an interesting subject,

but the problems upon which professional psychologists spend most _ of their time, interest practically no one else. To the “man in the street,” psychology stands for hypnotism, spirit phenomena, and how to make a sale. He does not realize that psychology deals with all of the most essential principles of his own nature and also with the “street” and the whole world in so far as he is directly cognizant of these things. The present book attempts to outline the problem of psychology in such a way as to reveal the tremendous scope of its field. Psychology is a unique science in that it has an application to practically every human problem. Whether we are thinking, feeling, seeing or acting, psychology finds facts to study and baffling problems to solve. The mystery of mind looms up at every point in human life.

There are relatively few “men in the street”? who appreciate this ubiquity of the mystery of mind. This is because mind does not naturally like to think about itself; or at any rate to do so - consciously. It takes the nearly abnormal mind of a born philosopher to think about mind spontaneously. However, when once these subjective lines of thought have been started they can be transferred to other individuals through instruction. A book or a college course in psychology is intended to provide such instruction and thus to turn the attention of thought to realities which surround it on all sides and from which it never can escape — although it may continually fail to notice them. A change from the naive attitude towards life to that which is inculcated by modern

I psychology should have an effect upon the normal mind somewhat similar to that which goes with conversion to religion. Reality appears in an entirely new intellectual light.

Psychic Phenomena

To those who have not as yet received this enlightenment, there is no mystery of mind apart from rarity or strangeness. Coincidences of thought, such as are often explained by the idea of telepathy, are mysterious for this reason. When an idea occurs to us from no apparent outside source and it turns out to be true we feel that here is something which requires special explanation. If we read of the event in a telegram or see it happen before our eyes, we do not regard our knowledge as mysterious. Yet the processes of sensation, perception and recognition of meaning which are involved in these commonplace experiences are still baffling the psychologist and will continue to do so for many years to come.

Notwithstanding these considerations, the reader may be disappointed to find that the present book has little or nothing to say concerning the mysteries which are being investigated by modern psychical research. ‘There are several reasons for our neglect of these problems. In the first place, it is not clear that all of these phenomena are distinctively mental. The tipping of tables, rapping sounds, floating lights, the extrusion of “ectoplasm,” etc. have the same relations to mind that are exhibited by normal events in the external world. The mystery is physical rather than mental. The events which have been seen or heard in the presence of certain mediums are regarded as mysterious because they apparently lack the customary physical causes of such events. It cannot be inferred from this fact alone that the causes are “mental” or “psychical.”

However, if investigation shows conclusively that appropriate physical causes actually are absent, we may then reasonably inquire whether the true causes are not psychological in nature. The psychologist knows that floating lights can be seen without anything being physically present before the eyes of the observer. In this case they are said to be products of imagination or hallucination. However, if this is the correct explanation the mystery seems to be swept away, for hallucination is a well-known process. But it is not a well understood process, and for the general psychologist the real mystery is as to how hallucinations of any kind are possible. The mystery of the “psychic appearances”’ is swallowed up in that of appearances in general. ‘Thus, although such phenomena enter the domain of psychology they do not stand out as of salient interest, unless one has a personal reason for studying them.

A second reason for failing to lay emphasis upon these phenomena lies in the doubt which attaches to their authenticity in the majority of instances. The witnesses may be honest and reliable, but the circumstances under which the observations are made are ordinarily such as to favor illusion and delusion. The appearances are sporadic and unreliable. They inspire confidence only in the minds of those who are predisposed to believe in them. We cannot rule them out from the list of topics which must be considered by science, but we are forced to place them nearly at the bottom of the list. The modern psychologist tends to regard alleged psychical phenomena much as the modern physicist looks upon perpetual motion machines. He and his scientific predecessors have been hearing about them since the dawn of rational thought; but thus far they have never seen one clearly and honestly demonstrated. However, either the psychologist or the physicist may conceivably be forced by facts to alter their views in the future.

A third reason why we have neglected so-called psychical mysteries in this book is that it has been our main purpose to present a mystery which is zot popularly appreciated. Mind is the commonest of all things and hence seems to be the least mysterious. An appreciation of the real nature of mind is not so common. Even less common is a recognition of its strange relationship to the physical world. The “mystery of mind’’ lies essentially in this relationship, the general nature of which we shall endeavor to make clear. The mystery of mind which thus appears also creates a mystery of matter. When we see how things stand between the facts of psychology and those of physics, we wonder which set of facts represents the more fundamental reality. How can they be combined to form a comprehensive view of the universe. Here is a mystery which is so broad in its relationship to the world in which we live that it obscures all of the detailed uncertainties which are being studied by ‘‘psychical researchers.”

The Special Applications of Psychology

However, a very important question is raised when we ask what will be the practical bearing of a solution of these mysteries upon human welfare. Intellectual sentimentalists have frequently made a slogan out of “truth for truth’s sake.” It is to be doubted, however, whether anyone seeks truth solely for its own sake. Facts must be capable of influencing human happiness before they can be important. ‘They can do this in the simplest possible manner when they merely satisfy curiosity. ‘This reveals one of the motives of the scientific purist, and happiness derived from the satisfaction of curiosity is as good as any other kind, depending only upon its intensity and duration. We may apply the principles of science in producing a newspaper, and accomplish little else than the satisfaction of curiosity. Scientific men also labor to make their names great and to disprove the doctrines of people whom they despise; but the curiosity motive is usually regarded as a more noble one than these.

If we disregard such personal appeals, we may still seek truth in general because we are certain that all knowledge will eventually prove useful. Knowledge tells us what kind of a universe we are in, and there is presumably no portion of this universe which has no influence upon our lives. At any rate, there are no general laws or general features of reality which are lacking in such a bearing. Even if we admit that some forms of knowledge may eventually turn out to be useless, we cannot predict this in advance. We are not sufficiently wise to state that any specified line of research cannot possibly have a practical outcome. Over and over again in the history of science, points which have seemed wholly theoretical and abstract in one stage of progress have risen to tremendous practical importance in a succeeding stage. This is true, for example, of the science of electricity, which underlies the stability of our entire modern civilization.

But when we turn specifically to the problems of psychology, we do not need to utilize our general faith in the applicability of all kinds of knowledge. We can see definitely why their solution must prove of practical importance for humanity. We can see this in small, particular matters, and also in generalities. Among small matters, consider the importance of a knowledge of any sense organ and its relationship to consciousness. Our understanding of the eye and of the processes of vision can never be too great. It is always practically desirable to be able to see better, to conserve eye-sight, and to increase the variety of our visual experiences. The same considerations obviously apply to hearing or to any other sense. Until we know all phases of these sensory activities we shall be lacking some of the essentials to a most perfect control of them.

Another “small,” practical domain of psychology lies in its bearing upon education, or the making of intelligent men. Methods of education have been built up largely without scientific guidance, on the basis of trial and error, the individual doctrines of some outstanding educator, or the whims of school boards and college faculties. Psychology is now trying to help; but not with too great success because of its own lack of knowledge. The more we know concerning memory, habit formation, encouragement and discouragement, the more efficiently we shall be able to educate the child and also the adult. Education is an affair of mind in relation to the world about it.

Business and the professions can also be helped by psychology. They need improved ways of testing and measuring men, so that individuals can be fitted into the economic scheme with the least possible lost effort and unhappiness. Many systems of “mental tests” have been devised for this purpose. The principles of scientific psychology have been applied in the production of these tests so far as possible. However, for the most part they are the product of general imagination and empirical trial. Advance in our knowledge of the nature of intelligence and of divers special abilities should enable the psychologist to develop tests which will provide a much more effective selection of men for particular positions in the business and social world.

The understanding and treatment of mental disease is another special field in which the progress of psychological knowledge has a very practical bearing upon human welfare. We have already advanced a long way beyond the once prevalent view that these disorders of thought and behavior are due to ‘“‘possession by evil spirits”? which only need to be exorcised by maltreatment of the unfortunate individual. However, there is still a vast amount to be learned. Specialists in mental disease are divided between various conflicting camps. Some overemphasize the conscious and subconscious factors which are involved while others seem to lay undue stress upon purely physiological considerations. True scientific progress will reconcile these different views and lead to a wiser and more successful handling of the insane or mentally deranged.

A closely related and more general field of usefulness for psychology lies in mental hygiene for the average individual. We all have ‘some traces of abnormality in our psychological make-up. Delusions and conflicts, over or under emotionality, incapacity for effective work, and the like, are common phenomena. Psychology should show us how to remedy these troubles. It should provide methods which have the same function as those of Couéism or Christian Science, but which operate more surely and efficiently. In order to do this, psychology must know more about the processes which underlie human motives.

When we think along this line we are led to wonder whether an advanced science of psychology might not be able to direct the mind towards achievements which would be quite impossible without its aid. Might it not lead us to intellectual processes which would now seem superhuman? Might it not raise the general level of human ability to a point where the common men would be geniuses and the geniuses supergeniuses? Could it not show the path to imaginative creations in literature, graphic arts or music excelling the best that we now possess? We do not know the answers to these questions, but affirmatives seem likely.

The General Application of Psychology

However, in the thought of the present writer, the practical significance of psychological progress lies not in these ‘‘small, particular” applications, but rather in a much broader application. Psychology is in a position — similar to that of no other science — in which it can attack the problem of “application” in general. It may reach an understanding of what the word “practical” means from start to finish. In our present-day philosophy we regard anything as “practical” if it is a successful means to something else, no matter what the latter may happen to be. In general, anything which “makes money”’’ is practical. Hence, in the last analysis many things are considered practical means towards impractical ends.

But what is a “practical end” or purpose? This is a question which psychology may be able to answer. It may also be able to reveal all of the practical steps which must be taken in order that such an end should be attained. We doubtless know many of these steps already, but we lack an acquaintance with the program of practical life as a whole. This program can be prepared by no other science than psychology. The reason for this is that things are “practical” only in so far as they have a bearing upon the satisfaction of human motives. Psychology is the only science which is in a position to investigate these motives, to determine their fundamental natures and the conditions under which they can be most completely realized.

The practical problem which psychology thus faces is one which has its common sense solution at all times and in every place. Men have their motives and they pursue them. The same can be said of any other practical problem. Since the dawn of civilization men have built dwellings and used light. But modern science has shown them how to build and how to illuminate more effectively and easily. In the same way, psychology must show us how we can work out our motives in the most efficient manner possible. It is true that psychology cannot provide us with all of the data which are necessary for this purpose, because the facts of physical science are also involved. We cannot satisfy hunger without food. Nevertheless, psychology occupies a central position in this situation, since the physical facts are only instruments to be utilized by the mind in carrying out its inner purposes. Men build houses to satisfy their motives for shelter, ownership, and the like. The application of physical science to house-building is merely contributory to the gratification of these motives. It is “practical” and “applied” only to the extent in which it actually ministers to such gratification. The same can be said of any other utilization of scientific knowledge.

The reader may feel that he already knows his own motives adequately and that the only problem which remains is as to how to put them into effect. However, the psychologist is sufficiently well informed to have good reason for doubting the truth of this assumption. Some men know their own motives better than do others, but all have something to learn. But even if we suppose that every individual is perfectly wise in this regard, there will still be some questions concerning motives which need to be answered. For example, are all of the motives in question “good” ones? And just what does it mean to say that some motives are “good” and others ‘“‘bad’”’? Given a complex group of interacting motives, what line of behavior will lead to the greatest total satisfaction? Can old motives be exchanged for new ones? And how? What kind of motives should we “‘instill” in the youth? And how? Is there any general motive which underlies particular ones, and furnishes a basis for the resolution of conflicts or the selection between the latter? These are a few of the questions which psychology must answer.

The Roots of Practicality

Here we are digging for the roots of ‘‘practicality.”” What do men want and why? Questions of this sort have hitherto been considered more by students of ethics and of economics than by psychologists. However it is obvious that whoever attempts to answer them is at that time a psychologist. The ethical thinkers have had a great deal to say about “good” and “bad,” “right” and “wrong,” “ought” and “duty”; but these conceptions must ultimately be rooted in the psychology of human motives or they will be lacking in meaning. Instead of asking what is “right” and “good” the psychologist asks what humanity fundamentally desires. The “right” and the “good” will prove to be ways of satisfying the basic motives of mankind.

Although the question of motives has always been one which has fascinated the attention of popular psychologists, the professional psychologist has fought rather shy of it until recent years. This may have been because too many human motives are in such ill repute that academic thinkers did not dare to soil their hands with them. However, if so, the advent of the Freudian psychology changed all this. We are now at liberty to glory in the reduction of benevolent intentions to sexual and egotistical wishes. The present century has witnessed the development of great interest on the part of psychologists in the rdéle of instincts and emotions in determining human behavior. The writings of William McDougall upon this subject are representative of the modern psychologist in his most practical mood. We may look for rapid progress towards a really scientific understanding of the forces which drive men to action.

The Pursuit of Happiness Through Psychological Knowledge

In succeeding chapters of the present book, a general doctrine of human motives will be outlined. Its teachings may be anticipated in a general manner in order to illustrate the way in which psychology can conceivably demonstrate the foundations of all practical reasoning. Our doctrine admits that men have many different motives, some of which are inborn and others acquired, but nevertheless there is a general law running through them all. This law is that our tendency to perform any voluntary act is proportional to the total amount of pleasure or “happiness”? which we have experienced in connection with the given form of action in the past. It may therefore be said that all of our acts are governed by a common motive: our past happiness. The motive power of any tendency to voluntary action lies in the sum of our past pleasures (minus the sum of past displeasures).

However, in the intelligent control of human affairs, it appears that future and not past happiness must be considered. Although the past furnishes our motives, their realization for which we are now acting lies in the future. Intelligence regulates action with regard to happiness which is to come as well as that which is over. How this is possible we shall endeavor to make clear at a later point in our discussion. In general, we suppose that the conditions for the realization of happiness are the same in the future as in the past; but it is evidently impossible to plan successfully for the

Io THE MYSTERY OF MIND achievement of happiness unless we know what these conditions really are.

This is where psychology can enter to render the greatest of all practical services to mankind. Happiness is a property of mind. Psychology is the only science which is concerned with the ‘‘conditions” of mind: the factors which determine its nature, and the laws into which these factors enter. What does happiness depend upon? Psychology must provide the answer. Not that we are totally ignorant in regard to this subject. Common sense contains a great deal of true psychology, and the scientific study of mind has already yielded important data regarding the conditions which underlie happiness, as we shall endeavor to show in subsequent pages. Nevertheless, there is still a very great deal more to be learned. Our views concerning the direct physiological basis of feeling are as yet highly speculative. Science can at present offer relatively little assistance to an individual who asks what he shall do to become happy. And yet this is the only practically important question in the whole world of human thought.

Human affairs in the present day involve a vast amount of unhappiness which could be reduced and possibly eliminated by appropriate psychological knowledge. The woes of marital and of martial activity are prominent in this respect. Our methods for obtaining positive pleasure are also quite inefficient. Psychology should be able to guide the author, the dramatist, and the scenario writer so that their productions would be far more pleasing than they average at the present time. Psychology should show the educator and parent how to mold the characters of men in the making so that their habits will fit them for happiness in their necessary relations with nature and their fellow men. Psychology should reveal the kind of social organization which is best adapted to the fundamentals of human nature. In all of its applications, psychology will need the assistance of other sciences, but it must be the leader because it alone can start at the heart of the problem.

Complete Technology

In accordance with the above views, applied science or technology is exact knowledge in the service of happiness. Knowledge which is

PSYCHOLOGY AND HUMAN PROGRESS II otherwise employed is not really applied. It may be misapplied, or enter into humanly meaningless processes. The technology of the present day is incomplete. It is incomplete because the reasoning which it involves does not start explicitly with the greatest possible happiness as its determining factor. It usually begins with some material desideratum such as “‘the strongest possible bridge for a certain price.” Complete technology would also be required to determine scientifically whether a bridge at the specified price is in the best interests of human happiness under the given conditions. Under present day civilized procedure, the features of the bridge are computed with refined engineering technique, while the much more important question as to whether or not a bridge shall be built at all is settled by a lottery of opinions in governmental assemblies. A great many other important questions are settled by social convention and law, without any explicit scientific foundations.