Miscellanies

Front matter

MISCELLANIES,

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Contents

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Memoir - -- -- ix

y^F^TICLES ON pENEI\AL ^SUBJECTS.

II

Though we speak of Beauty as having sensation for one of its causes, it must be borne in mind that it is only such sensation as comes through the eye and the ear. The senses of sight and hearing have been called the art-senses, and are distinguished from the others by

B

THE PRINCIPLES OF BEAUTY.

their greater objectivity. Of their results our own personality forms a smaller part. Taste and smell and touch we cannot describe but in terms which involve our own bodily consciousness as part of the sensation. We feel the taste, the smell, the touch ; but the hill, the tree, the bird, the thunder, the wind, and the song, are spoken of as separate from our own personality, and without reference to our organs or nerves of seeing and hearing. We may in subsequent observations and reflections ascertain or infer that these objects were made known to us by the instrumentality of our eyes and ears ; but neither these organs, nor any part of our corporeal personality, were brought before our minds in the first perceptions of such sights and sounds.

Our English word feeling seems to belong especially to those states of consciousness of which the Ego or personal consciousness is the principal part ; for examples, the emotions, the moral sentiments, the internal bodily sensations (hunger, thirst, &c.), and the outward sensations caused by the contact of external bodies with the skin and by the action of the muscles, in tact and touch. And though we do not use exactly such a phrase as feeling a flavour , or an odour , yet we must admit that there is more affinity between these two sensations and bodily feelings, than between the latter and the sensations of sight and hearing. Into the sentiment of Beauty through sense objectivity necessarily enters. The pleasure ensuing on sight and sound has a characteristic difference, which we express by the word beautiful ; but pleasant odours and flavours are described as delicious — a word which involves a degree of subjectivity or personal delight approaching to the sensual. Of all the sources of pleasure, perhaps the most frequent is that of sight. Sight more frequently, extensively, and importantly than any other sense, put us in relation with the outer world ; and the quality by which we designate the pleasure which accompanies this sense is applied by metaphor to almost everything which gives us either agreeable feeling, or mental enjoyment.

There is no better definition of what is beautiful, in its simplest essence, than the phrase which we meet with early in the Bible — “ pleasant to the eye.” Visual pleasure is the germinal form of Beauty. 11 Truly the light is sweet, and it is a pleasant thing for the eyes to behold the sun.” But the word receives far more extensive and more complex applications. By the transitions of language it often expresses that of which visual pleasure is no component, or a very small one. An infant’s delight in a brilliant object, or some vivid

SENSATIONAL BEAUTY.

colour, illustrates tlie simplest form of beauty. The mother, looting fondly at the infant’s smiling face, and hearing its crow of joy, has a more composite feeling of the Beautiful. A philosopher, watching the two, exclaims, “What beautiful illustrations of my theory !” using the epithet partly in its metaphorical sense, but also in expression of a kind of beauty, — namely, that of fitness, which may be considered hereafter.

Why certain feelings give us pleasure, it is often difficult to explain. But there are some general facts, which belong, more or less, to all pleasurable feelings. Thus pleasure will result from the mere novelty of the sensation — and with an obvious final cause independent of the enjoyment, since it calls our attention to the outer world, and makes the business of learning outward things an agreeable excitement instead of a toil ; but if there is nothing in the impression but its novelty to afford us pleasure, the enjoyment soon ceases. Nature, however, is so rich, and art so fertile, that this source of pleasure never fails, and it meets us under the form of what we call variety. It is this which gives liveliness, piquancy, and animation to our every-day life. How much we prize it, is evident from many of the terms of commendation which we apply to things which are fresh and new and unworn — “ To-morrow to fresh woods and pastures new !” But it will not alone suffice to impart pleasure. It will not make an agreeable sensation out of one that is in its nature disagreeable. But if the sensation be of a neutral character, the novelty will bestow on it a kind of charm, which betrays the feelings into a sense of the beautiful ; and often erroneously, as we see in new fashions of dress. Impressions, pleasant in themselves, pall by too frequent repetition, or too long a continuance, and at last fail to awake the consciousness, unless united with some collateral interest.

But change must not be abrupt or sudden ; or, if it be so, the impression must dwell long enough for the first effect of suddenness to subside. Quick exchanges of light and shade, of sound and silence, by no means afford that sort of pleasure which would be called beautiful. They are rather alternations of surprise and disappointment. A vivid impression ought to cease gradually, or to pass by degrees into that which is to succeed. This is the agreeableness of continuity.

Besides variety and continuity, there is another circumstance under which sensation gives pleasure, viz. similarity. [Repetition is agreeable,

THE PRINCIPLES OF BEAUTY.

not only if the thing is pleasant in itself, and before the repetition palls, but also through the recognition of the feeling, as being like what had been felt before. That enjoyment should accrue from the perception of similarities is scarcely less important than the gratification of variety, because we thus learn to classify the objects of our knowledge. But mere likeness without difference becomes distasteful sameness or dull uniformity, — just as mere variety without likeness would be intolerable ; for in this case there would a number of insulated experiences without any connection; and the perception of relations is one of the deepest wants of our nature.

The pleasure derived from similarity enters largely into the beauty of symmetry. This side is like that. This curve corresponds to that. And it is like with a difference ; the difference being in place or material ( idem in alio). It is similarity which constitutes the pleasure derived from imitation, and not merely the pleasure of witnessing the successful production of likeness ; for, even if the imitation is accidental, thespectator is pleased, as in the fortuitous resemblances occasionally seen in nature — as of stones which have some resemblances to plants, or of plants which in a manner resemble animals. This kind of pleasure is derived from those lowest works of art which are mere copies of natural or artificial objects. Similarity enlivened by difference, variety restrained by unity, may be found in all the arrangements of light and shade, form, and colour, and sound, which are most pleasing to the eye and to the ear ; and the same principles may be traced in those movements of the body which are attended with pleasure.

Most of our sensations are received in conjunction with muscular action. This exercise must be easy, or the enjoyment will be spoilt. In muscular exercise there is constant alternation of action and repose. To be pleasant, the movements should occasion no feeling of effort or fatigue. The pleasure which ensues on the action is not referred to the moving parts, — but there is an agreeable condition of the personal consciousness. To render it pleasant there must be sufficient rest to prevent fatigue ; and this is effected by change in the direction of the movements, so that different muscles may be employed, or the same muscles in different degrees. The pleasure is enhanced when the alternations of action and repose occur at regular intervals. Thus it is easier to march or dance to music. We have said that the sudden change of a sensation is disagreeable. The same may be said of a muscular movement. A sudden resistance, and a sudden removal of a

SENSATIONAL BEAUTY.

resistance, are almost equally displeasing. Continuity , then, is an

element in agreeable movements, as well as in pleasant sensations.

The influence of similarity, and variety, and continuity may be traced in the beauty which belongs to simple lines — and quite apart from all collateral suggestions. A straight line can hardly be said to be in itself either beautiful or the reverse. It has unity of direction, which, if too prolonged, may be displeasing by excess of uniformity, and by muscular fatigue. Two parallel lines are agreeable or satisfactory by reason of their similarity of direction, and their equality of distance throughout their length. Two lines converging partly enclose a space which may give pleasure to the eye, when seen in relation to some other angle, by virtue of the proportion. The angles are seen comparatively in a triangle. In the equilateral triangle the angles give the satisfaction of similarity, unity, and equality of ratio to the whole, — being 60° : 60° : 60° = 180, or 1 : 3.

In the right-angled isosceles, they present unity and variety, and yet definite proportions, — being 1 : 1 and 1 to 2, i. e. 45° : 45° and 45° : 90°.

In the scalene triangle made by bisection of the equilateral we have variety governed by proportion, — the angles being 30° : 60° : 90° or 1 : 2 and 2 : 3.

In another scalene, we have 18° : 72° : 90°, or 1 : 4 and 4 : 5.

We have said that into agreeable sensation variety, continuity, and similarity enter more or less. Now a curved line presents both continuity and variety, in a manner agreeable to the sensation of sight, and calling forth an agreeable exercise of the muscles of the eye. But some curves are more pleasant than others. The circle is less agreeable than the ellipse, and the simple ellipse than the ovoid or composite ellipse. In the circle there is constant change of direction ; but every change is like its predecessor, and the general appearance is excess of uniformity or monotony. Moreover, the muscular actions which trace it, whether of the eye or of the hand, are comparatively difficult. In the ellipse the change of direction is more gradual, and the figure admits of division by the eye, without diameters, into opposites which are similar and symmetrical. The ovoid is still more beautiful from the yet greater variety of direction, with perfect facility of gradation.

But it is in combinations of lines that the principles which have just been adverted to become still more obvious. If we trace a succession of straight lines of equal lengths, forming a succession of

THE PRINCIPLES OF BEAUTY".

equal angles (as in the pattern for ladies’ work called Vandyke), theeffect is not unpleasing ; for there is a variety of direction, recurring at equal intervals, that produces similarity, and thus compensates in some degree for the want of continuity and gradation : but if the successive lines are of unequal lengths, and at unequal angles, making what is called a jagged line, we have a very disagreeable effect — the result of sudden transitions of direction, without any regularity of intervals. It is the excess of variety. But, in estimating the sesthetical effect of combinations of lines, we are apt to forget (and I am not aware that this subject has been hitherto noticed) the influence on the eye of the partially enclosed spaces. In following such linear forms, the eye not only pursues the lines, but it also traverses the intervening spaces. I have adduced the monotony of the circle, and the more pleasing variety of the ellipse, as explained by the direction of the curve. But, apart from the course of the line, there is an impression left on the sense by the enclosed space. The circle is always the same in form, however different in size, the radii being equal. The ellipse, on the other hand, is in its nature variable, and is at once recognised as such. It suggests a form which may vary almost indefinitely by the varying proportions between its major and minor axis.

When lines are so combined as to produce only partial enclosures of space, the influence of the latter will depend on the arrangement of the lines. Thus if we take a series of semicircles of equal diameters^ and arrange them on a horizontal line with the convexities uppermost, the effect is agreeable. Bor, though there is a repetition of the same linear form, the spaces between the semicircles are bounded by curvilinear angles, which produce a pleasing contrast. But if the semicircles are so arranged that the curves flow into each other, and so take opposite directions — that is, with alternating convexities and concavities — the eye is chiefly occupied with the line, the effect of which is thus equally balanced between the variety of direction and the similarity and equality of the curves. Though the effect, however, is agreeable, the pleasure does not equal that which is produced by the undulating or waving line, which is made up of a succession of segments of ellipses.

So much, then, for lines. — But there are forms of a composite character which excite the feeling of Beauty by reason of a profounder symmetry than is at first sight discoverable, — a symmetry the nature

SENSATIONAL BEAUTY.

of which may afford to the sesthetical student a subject of very interesting speculation.

This higher kind of Beauty of Form may be perceived and delighted in without any knowledge of its source ; but there must be a certain organization of the sensorium for this effect. As it is a well-known fact that some persons are insusceptible to the enjoyment of the more complex forms of harmony of sound, so there are subtleties of symmetry beyond the range of ordinary perception. There are individuals who have not the sesthetical constitution which would enable them to recognize and enjoy the exquisite proportions of the Yenus of Melos, or of the portico of the Parthenon, just as others are dead to the harmonies of Beethoven.

I think I may appeal with confidence to the experience of all who have felt great delight in architecture and sculpture as to the fact of there being an intuitive perception of harmony, or a feeling of satisfaction and admiration, arising in the mind, on the contemplation of a building in its totality, very different from the enjoyment of the beauty of separate parts. A great deal of the pleasure, and indeed the most common gratification, is that which is derived from parts. We see a cathedral, and talk of the beauty of such a window, or such an arch, or transept, or cluster of pillars. Our admiration of the building, as a whole, is very different. Long before I had the least idea of the cause of my enjoyment, I remember the peculiar delight with which I looked at Salisbury Cathedral as a whole. It was not to my consciousness resolvable into an aggregate or succession of pleasant impressions from spire, tower, arches, buttresses, and windows ; but it was an indefinable sense of harmony of proportion. Common as such feelings must have been, it is remarkable that till of late they have not been satisfactorily accounted for. One source of the pleasure has been discovered and elucidated by the genius and the patient investigations of Mr. Hay. The following observation had been thrown out by Sir I. Newton in a letter to Mr. Harrington : — “ I am inclined to believe some general laws of the Creator prevailed with respect to the agreeable or unpleasing affections of all our senses ; at least the supposition does not derogate from the wisdom or power of God, and seems highly consonant to the simplicity of the microcosm in general.” This was in answer to a suggestion of Mr. Harrington’s, that the proportions in architecture are coincident with the harmonic ratios in sound. But his attempts to realize the idea

THE PRINCIPLES OF BEAUTY.

■were founded on lineal measurements, and they were unsuccessful. Mr. Hay, having found that the harmony of forms could not he explained by ratios, derived from lineal measurements, was led to inquire whether the clue might not be found in the proportions of the component angles. The result, after many years of acute observation and unwearied study, has been, that a form is beautiful when the space which it encloses can be analyzed into angles which bear proportions to each other analogous to those which subsist between the notes of music. The basis of harmony is, that, when sounds mingle agreeably, the vibrations of which they are severally composed bear such a relation to each other as is capable of a very simple numerical expression. Thus, the octave is 2 to 1 ; the dominant 2 to 3 ; the mediant 4 to 5. All the harmonics are composed of whole numbers in relation to the unit — as A, J, &c. These harmonics again correspond to the points or nodes at which a string in vibration spontaneously divides itself.

Indeed, all the numbers in which musical notes are expressed denote relations of physical agencies. Thus, the octave, or eighth note of the musical scale, is the double of the first in this respect, — viz. that in a second of time the octave has double the number of vibrations which belong to the fundamental note. The notes composing the diatonic scale lie between the fundamental note and its octave; and the fractions belonging to them denote the relative lengths of the string, and, inversely, the proportionate number of vibrations. Thus, the octave is the sound of half the string, and the vibrations are as 2:1. Take C of the middle scale. The second note D is to C as 8 : 9, being the sound of of the string. While C is vibrating 8 times B vibrates 9. The vibrations of the third note JE bear to those of C the ratio of 5 to 4 ; the length of the string being A. The fourth note F is sounded by f of the string, and the vibrations relatively to C are as 4 to 3. G is the fifth note, and belongs to §- of the string ; and the ratio of its vibrations, in relation to the fundamental note, are as 3 to 2. The sixth note A has J of the length, and therefore its vibrations are as 5 to 3. The. seventh note B has with a corresponding ratio of vibration. The eighth is the octave C and completes the diatonic scale. Mr. Hay has found it convenient for his analogy to adopt the old German scale, and take in B flat, which is A, and called B natural in the old scale, while our B natural was formerly designated JET.

SENSATIONAL BEAUTY.

If we follow up the notes into the higher octaves, successively, we shall find that all the numbers are multiples of 2, 3, 5, and 7. There are no other primes than these. Here is a scale of four octaves : —

Tonics.

c

I.

Tonics.

CO)

Super-

tonics.

Mediants.

Subdomi- Dominants, nants.

Subme-

diants.

Subtonics.

ic

D

E

F

G

A

B

II.

C(D*

(3)*

C c

d

e a

b