Medieval Italy during a thousand years (305-1313); a brief historical narrative with chapters on great episodes and personalities and on subjects connected with religion, art and literature

Preface

* A S early as the time of Cicero and Varro/ says Gibbon, ' it /\ was the opinion of the Roman augurs that the twelve A. jL vultures which Romulus had seen represented the twelve centuries assigned for the fatal period of his city/ This prophecy, as we learn from writers of the age, such as the poet Claudian, filled men's minds with gloomy apprehensions when the twelfth century of Rome's existence was drawing to its close, and ' even posterity must acknowledge with some surprise that the interpretation of an accidental or fabulous circumstance has been seriously verified by the downfall of the Western Empire.'

The traditional date of the founding of Rome is 753 B.C., and if we hold that its Empire ended with the capture of the city by the Vandal Gaiseric and the death of Valentinian III, the last Emperor of the great Theodosian dynasty, both of which events occurred in a.d. 455, the fulfilment of the prediction wall certainly appear surprising. Nor need it wholly shatter our faith in ancient auguries if we feel compelled to defer the date of the final downfall for some twenty-one years, during which brief period no less than nine so-called Emperors assumed the purple : one the assassin of Valentinian, the next the nominee of the Visigoth king at Aries, five others the puppets of the barbarian general Ricimer, another an obscure palace official elected by a Burgundian noble, and the ninth the son of a Pannonian soldier in Attila's army — the ' inoffensive youth,' as Gibbon calls him, who had inherited or assumed the high-sounding names of Romulus Augustus (derisively or pityingly belittled into Momullus Augustulus), and whom in 476 the barbarian Odovacar deposed and with contemptuous

V generosity allowed to retire to spacious and luxurious imprisonment in the villa built by Marius and adorned by lyUcullus on the heights that overlook the bays of Baiae and Naples.

This date, 476, is generally accepted as that which marks the end of the history of ancient Rome and the beginning of Italian history. Nevertheless the ' Roman ' Empire is considered by some writers to have continued its existence under the Eastern Emperors, if not for nigh a thousand years, till the capture of Constantinople by the Turks, anyhow for more than 300 years, until its usurpation by a woman — that inhuman wretch, the pious Irene. This event, according to such writers, justified the Romans in reviving by papal unction the imperial dignity in the person of the Frank monarch Charles the Great. This revived Empire, which went on existing in a fashion till the death of Henry VII in 1313 (when all real connexion with Italy ceased), or lasted even, some would say, till the abdication of Francis II in 1806, was of course a fiction ; but the belief in the so-styled * Holy Roman Empire ' was a fact which much influenced medieval history, and therefore cannot be ignored by the historian. However, whatever arguments may be adduced in support of these various views, it is simpler and more reasonable to hold that the ancient Roman Empire — that is, the world-wide Imperium of which Rome herself was the metropolis — if it did not come to an end when Constantine sifece Greco and transferred the imperial seat from Rome to Byzantium, or when the last Theodosian Emperor was murdered in Rome shortly before the arrival of the Vandal Gaiseric, did certainly suffer final extinction when, in 476, the barbarian Odovacar deposed the boy-emperor Romulus Augustulus and assumed the powers, if not the title, of a King of Italy.

We may therefore assume that the history of medieval Italy begins from the year 476. After that date Italy was only temporarily and indirectly connected with that Eastern Empire which some would persuade us to call the ' Later Roman ' Empire, but which, seeing that ' Constantinopolitan ' is a long "word, I think we had better call ' Byzantine ' — vi

PREFACE

especially as the word possesses a sufficient flavour of Orientalism to be useful as a distinguishing term in questions of art as well as of history.

It is true that for a certain period this Byzantine^Bmpire did re-establish its sovereignty over Rome (which it regarded as merely a provincial town of its Italian diocese) and over almost the whole of the peninsula, and that for centuries it retained its supremacy in some important Italian cities and districts — the Exarchate and the southern marina especially — so that at times we shall be much occupied by the presence of Byzantines in Italy. It is also true that the Byzantine rulers claimed to be, and were often acknowledged to be, * Roman ' Emperors.^ Moreover, it must be allowed that the history of this so-called Eastern Empire in its later stages — with its Greek, Syrian, Armenian, Macedonian, I^atin, Flemish, and French monarchs and dynasties and with its wealthy and luxurious Oriental offshoots known as the ' Empires ' of Nicaea and Trebizond — is exceedingly picturesque and interesting.

Nevertheless, seeing that our subject is Italy and not Byzantium, it will be better to assume that the real Roman Empire ended with the deposition of the last successor of Augustus at Rome in 476, and to limit our attention after that date almost wholly to Italy, casting only now and then a glance across the Adriatic.

But, although the history of medieval Italy may be said to begin its main course from this date, I have thought it advisable to go back to the age of Constantine in order to trace from their early origins certain religious, political, artistic, and literary characteristics, as well as to be able to relate more fully and consecutively the story of the barbarian invasions. After this has been done there will remain the still more difficult task of showing how amid all these diverse elements and forces began to work that new spirit which after so many

1 But the Caroling Louis II had much reason on liis side when, in answer to a contemptuous letter of the Byzantine Emperor Basil, he asserted that the Eastern ' Emperors ' were no Imperatoves Romanorum, and justified his own claim to the imperial ofi&ce (as Charles the Great used to do) by appealing to the case of David.

vii centuries has in our days at length evolved an Italian nation. My subject, which extends to the first dawn of the new art and literature, covers the space of a thousand years, and it would be a most wearisome and unprofitable task if I were to attempt to crowd my pages with the innumerable persons that move in such rapid succession, and in such intricate and swiftly changing groups, across the ever- varying scenes of these ten centuries. Even in the spacious and luminous narrative of Gibbon the reader who has not ample leisure and rare perseverance must often despair of finding his way amid the labyrinthine mazes of barbarian invasions and religious discords, or of following continuously the drama of the Empire — a drama so complicated that on more than one occasion no less than six Emperors appear together on the stage.

With limited space and such a vast amount of detail before him, he who wishes to give something better than a dry catalogue of names and events must devise some method which, while it allows him to present in a connected narrative whatever historical facts may seem essential, will also permit him to treat other matters of importance in a less formal and statistical fashion — to fill in with a free hand, so to speak, the bare historical outline.

The plan that I have adopted is to prefix to each of the five parts into which my subject naturally divides itself a brief account of the political events of the period in question. These summaries, together with various tables and lists, will enable the reader to frame, or perhaps I should say to arrange in chronological order and perspective, the contents of those chapters in which with a freer hand I sketch certain interesting episodes and personalities, endeavouring by means of quotation and description to add a little in the way of local colour and portraiture.

I have thus been able to avoid interrupting my narrative by disquisitions on architecture, literature, and art, and have relegated what I had to say on these subjects to supplementary chapters.

Any fairly full list of the multitudinous writers on the history, viii

PREFACE

the art, and the literature of Italy during the period covered by this volume would need more space than I can spare, and if the titles of their works were added a large number of pages would be required. I shall therefore only mention a few old and recent acquaintances to whom I owe especial thanks, and whom I can recommend for further information. I have not thought it necessary to give any names of the almost innumerable compilers of local handbooks, authoritative or amateur.

Balzani {Cronache it. del Med. Evo) ; Boethius {De Cons. Phil.) ; Bryce ; Capelletti ; Cassiodorus (and Jordanes ; also his Letters^ edited by Hodgkin) ; Compagni (Dino) ; Crowe and Cavalcaselle ; Engel et Serrure {Niimismatique du Moyen Age) ; Kusebius ; Ferrero ; Gaspary (Scuola Poet. Sicil.) ; Gibbon ; Gregorovius (Gesch. Stadt Rom) ; Gregory the Great ; Hodgkin [Italy and her Invaders) ; Sir T. G. Jackson [Romanesque Architecture) ; Jordanes [Hist. Goth.) ; Kugler ; Liher Pontificalis (ed. Duchesne) ; Machiavelli [Istorie Fior.) ; Mothes [Baukunst d. Mittelalters) ; Muratori ; Paulus Diaconus [Hist. Lomb.) ; Priscus ; Ricci (especially on Ravenna) ; Rivoira [Orig. dell' Arch. Lomb.) ; Rotari [Editto) ; St. Augustine [De Civ. Dei) ; Sismondi ; Symonds ; Villani (Giov.) ; Wroth [Brit. Mus. CataL Goth, and Lomb. Coins).

The Invasioni barbariche and Ultalia da Carlo Magno alia Morte di Arrigo VII of S.B. Professor Pasquale Villari I have found very pleasant and useful guides through the mazes of political events and biographical details.

My thanks are due to the Delegates of the Oxford Press for allowing me to make use of my little volume of Selections from Dante's Inferno, published just forty years ago.

In the Ivist of Illustrations, where the necessary information is given about the pictures, due acknowledgment is made of permission to make use of photographs, etc. Some of the line engravings inserted in the text I copied from my own notebooks, some from old books or photographs.

In regard to the coins, it gives me pleasure to repeat here my thanks that are due to Mr. J. Allan, of the British Museum.

ix

For my first four maps I have accepted in the main the political divisions given in Professor Villari's Invasioni barbariche ; the fifth is (with permission) founded on a map published by the Cambridge University Press to illustrate the Cambridge Medieval History.

Perhaps it may be well to add that I am aware that nobody can express opinions on subjects such as medieval architecture without exposing himself to afucilata from various quarters.

H. B. COTTBRILIv

Rome, April 19 15

P.S. A note on the Papal Tiara has been most kindly sent me by Professor Villari. As it has arrived too late to be inserted in the List of Illustrations, I append here a translation of the more important passages :

" The tiara probably came from the East. . . . The Jewish High Priest's tiara had three crowns. ... It is certain that the tiara adopted by the Popes represents the temporal power, whereas the mitre represents the spiritual. The rites used in placing the episcopal mitre on a Pope's head and in placing the tiara are different. The tiara (also called the regnum) had first one crown, then two, and then three. The tiara with three crowns was called the triregnum. The crowns have been said to symbolize the Church militant, tribulant, and triumphant, or the Trinity, or else the three theological virtues ; but such interpretations are fantastic, ... After 1059 the tiara is often mentioned. It may be said to appear [as natural] with the programme of Gregory VII [Hildebrand]. After some years of his pontificate Boniface VIII added a second crow n[evidently after 1299; see explanation of Fig. 50], but it is difficult to say who added the third. Some think it was Urban V [1362, at Avignon], and some fancy that the motive was to imitate the High Priest of the Jews. I have heard of the hypothesis that the first crown symbolized the papal sovranty over the Patrimony of St. Peter, and the other two the sovranty which the Popes pretended to have over the kingdoms of Apulia and Sicily. This hypothesis might have been suggested by the fact that in some of the oldest tiaras with three crowns there is a single crown above, while below the two others are united, the lower being upside down."

Some further details are given by Gregorovius. See vol. i, pp. 812, 829, and vol. ii, pp. 653, 673, of the splendidly illustrated Italian edition of his History of the City of Rome. On p. 489 of vol. i will be found a photograph of the statue of Gregory the Great (said to have been begun by Michelangelo) where the tiara has three crowns — which is of course a blunder. Gregorovius says that the original tiara was a conical head-dress made of wliite peacock feathers.

H. B. C.

ViAREGGio, May 1915

Part I Chapter Page

Roman Emperors from Dioci,e;tian to Romui^us

The FamiIvY of Const antine, p. 19 The Famii^ies of Vai,entinian I and Theodosius I, p. 20

I. Why the Empire Fei.1. 21

II. The Barbarians 27

III. Christianity and Paganism 37

IV. Theodosius the Cathoi^ic 55 V. ST11.1CHO, Alaric, and Placidia 74

VI. Attila the Hun 93

VII. Gaiseric to Odovacar 105

Notes on Pirate I of Coins (Fig. 9) (Constantine I TO Justinian), p. 117

Part II

HiSTORICAI. OUTI^INE (476-568) 121

Kings, Emperors, and Popes during 476-568, p. 157

I. Theoderic 159

Lineage of Theoderic the Great, p. 172 The Vandai, Kings, p. 172

xi

CMAPTKR rA«>

II. Writers of the Age i73

III. St. Benedict i86

-. IV. Justinian i94

PART III HisTORiCAi, Outline (568-800) 207

Kings, Emperors, and Popes during 568-800, p. 248 Kings of the Franks, p. 250 Lineage of Chari^es the Great, p. 250

- I. Gregory the Great 251

II. Architecture and Mosaic^ (300-800) 259

III. Venice and other Cities 284

IV. Charles the Great in Rome 293

Note on the Byzantine Emperors, p. 308

PART IV Historical Outline (800-1190) 311 Lineage of the Carowngians, p. 323

Emperors, Kings, and Popes during 800-962, p. 377

Emperors (Saxon and Franconian) and Popes during

962-1125, p. 379 Emperors and Popes to the Death of Barbarossa

(1125-90). p. 382 Geneai^ogy of the Hohenstaufer, p. 383

I. The Dark Age 3^5

II. The Normans 399

Norman Dukes and Kings of Sicii^y and South Itai,y, p. 410

III. The Rise of the Republics 413

IV. Romanesque Architecture (800-1200) 434

Note on Mosaics and Pi^astic Art in South Itai^y

and Sicii^y (105 0-12 00), p. 446 Notes on Pirate II of Coins (Fig. 45) (Heraci^ius to Henry VII), p. 449 xii

CONTENTS

Part V Chaptir Page

HiSTORICAI. OUTUNE (119O-I313) 453

Geneai^ogy op the Angevins and Chari^es of Vai^ois,

P- 477 Geneai^ogy of the Eari,y Spanish Kings of Siai^Y,

P- 477 Note on Dante and Henry VII, p. 495 Emperors and Popes during 1190-1313, p. 497

I. Reugious Movements {c. 1200-1300) 499

II. The Repubucs and Signories (down to c. 1320) 511

IV. Origins of Itai^ian I^anguage and I^iterature

Index 553

Zlll

MAPS

PACK

The Four Praefecturab of the Roman Empire in

THE Time of Constantine I i

ITAI.Y IN THE AGE OF OdOVACAR 120

S.W. Europe in the Time of Theoderic 158

The Lombard Domination 206

The Empire of Chari.es the Great 240

iTAIvY IN THE AGE OF DANTE 494

FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS

The names of those to whom the author is indebted for permission to use copyright photographs are printed in italic.

FIG.

I. Dante Frontispiece

Bronze bust. Naples, Museo Nazionale. The face perhaps copied from the Bargello mask, which is said to have been taken after death. In any case a very fine work and a most satisfactory representation of what one hopes the poet of the Divina Commedia looked hke. The much-restored Bargello fresco, originally perhaps by Giotto, presents rather the lover of Beatrice and the writer of the Vita Nuova. Photo Brogi.

2i Battle at Saxa Rubra 4

Part of the Arch of Constantine, Rome. The central rude and grotesque reHef, dating from about 312, represents the battle at Saxa Rubra, near the Milvian Bridge, where Maxentius was drowned. See pp. 3, 40. Note above the much finer sculptures of the age of Trajan and the Antonines. See p. 260. In a Stanza of the

XV

PIO. VAO

Vatican there is a celebrated fresco of the same scene, designed by Raffael and painted by Giulio Romano. Photo Anderson.

3. Busts of Constantine the Great and Juwan 50

U£azi, Florence, and Capitol Museum, Rome. For Constantine's curls and finery, see p. 51 n. The Julian bust is doubtful, the inscription being medieval. Photos Brogi.

4. S. Paoi,o fuori i,e mura, Rome 58

Founded in 388 by Theodosius and Valentinian II. (See p. 58 and under ' Churches ' in Index.) Burnt down, except the choir and apse, in 1823. The reconstruction (1824-54) on the old lines is very impressive, and the more modem character of some of the alterations does not prevent the edifice from being one of the grandest basilicas in existence. Photo Alinari.

5. S. Maria Maggiore, Rome 68

See p. 67 n. and Index under * Churches.' Photo Anderson.

6. PuivPiT, S. Ambrogio, M11.AN 80

With the so-called tomb of StiUcho. As he was killed at Ravenna (p. 80) it is unlikely that he was buried here. The sarcophagus dates probably from about 500. The ancient Lombard pulpit was removed about 1150, during restorations, and re-erected in later Romanesque style, etc., about 1200. Some of the quaint reliefs may date from 800, or even 500. Photo Alinari.

7. Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, Ravenna 90

See pp. 91, 260, 271. The middle sarcophagus is that of the Empress. Those to right and left (the latter invisible) are supposed to be the tombs of her husband, Constantius III, and her son, Valentinian III. Photo Alinari.

8. Pope lyEo and Attila 102

Fresco by Raffael in one of the Stanza of the Vatican. See p. 102. Raffael transfers the scene to the vicinity of Rome (Colosseum in background) and gives Leo I the features of Leo X {cf. Fig. 29). For Attila's personal appearance, see p. 96. Note that SS. Peter and Paul are seen only by the Huns. In St. Peter's, over the altar of Leo I, there is a theatrical rehef by Algardi (c. 1650) representing the same scene. Reproduction, with permission, of a heliotype in the ' Rafael-werk^' published by E. Arnold {Gutbier), Dresden.

xvi no. PAGB

g. Coins, Pi.atk I : Constantine I to Justinian

See Notes, p. 117.

10. Baptistery of the Orthodox, Ravenna 132

See pp. Son., 92, and 271. The dome, as that of S. Vitale, is formed of terra-cotta vessels. See p. 267. Photo Alinari.

11. Mausoi^eum of Theoderic, Ravenna 164

See p. 165. Photo Alinari.

12. S. APOI.UNARE Nuovo, Ravenna 1 68

See descriptions, pp. i68 sq., 272. Photo Alinari.

13. S. PlETRO IN ClEI. d'oRO, PAVIA I76

See under ' Churches ' in Index. The church was (if not still older) originally Lombardic, founded perhaps by Agilulf, c. 604 ; but it was rebuilt in Romanesque style. The main portion of the portal dates (says Mothes) from 950 to 1000. For the tomb of Boethius see p. 177, and for that of St. Augustine see description of Fig. 52 (i). Coronations of the Kings of Italy (see under Fig. 19) were sometimes held at Pavia, the old Lombard capital, in S. Pietro, or else in S. Michele, which was then the cathedral. Photo Alinari.

14. Boethius 178

See p. 175 5^. The painting (imaginary or from some old portrait ?) is by Giovanni Santi, Raffael's father. It is in the Barberini Gallery, Rome. Photo Brogi.

15. MONASTERO DEL SaCRO SpECO, SuBIACO i88

See p. 188. The church and monastery, as also the Abbey Church of Monte Cassino and the CoUemaggio at Aquila (Fig. 49), are said to have suffered from the recent terrible earthquake (January 13, 1915). Photo Brogi,

16. S. Vitale, Ravenna 198

See under ' Churches ' in Index. Cf. Fig. 23. Photo Alinari.

17. Mosaics of Justinian and Theodora, Ravenna 202

See pp. 203-4, 272. Photo Alinari.

18. S. Apollinare in Classe, Ravenna 204

See under ' Churches ' in Index. For the mosaics, see p. 273. Photo Alinari.

b xvii

PAGE

19. (i) The Iron Crown 228

Preserved in the Treasury of Monza Cathedral (p. 256 n.). With this the Lombard kings, it is said, were crowned at Pa via, their capital, or Milan {e.g. Agilulf), or perhaps Monza. The Frank and German monarchs imtil Henry II (1002) seem to have been crowned, as Kings of Italy, generally at Pavia, but later at Milan. The ' Italian ' king Berengar II (c. 950) was crowned at Pavia. Frederick Barbarossa, at feud with Milan, was crowned at Monza, or perhaps at Pavia (c. 11 55), which city took his part. Since then the Iron Crown has been preserved at Monza. It was used by Charles V, who crowned himself with it at Bologna in 1530, and by Napoleon (at Milan) in 1805. In 1859 it was carried off by the Austrians, but was restored in 1866. Perhaps the original was a simple iron crown, or possibly only the interior circlet of iron (visible in the picture) which tradition asserted to have been formed of one of the nails of the Cross, brought by Helena from Jerusalem (p. 39). The golden, jewelled exterior dates perhaps from about 1 100. It is a simpler and apparently later work than the imperial crown figured below. Muratori repudiates the nail legend. Bonincontro, a Monza chronicler of the fourteenth century, does not mention the legend, though he speaks of the iron crown and tells us that iron is a strong and regal metal. Numerous nails from the Cross were supposed to exist. See p. 43. The legend, if it was not originated, was certainly confirmed by the fact that Matteo Villani (c. 1350) called this crown Sda Corona, which was wrongly explained as Sancta Corona, whereas it meant Seconda Corona — the first crown being the silver one at Aachen and the third being the golden one at Rome. Photo G. Bianchi, Monza.

(2) The so-cai,i,ed Grown of Chari^emagne 228

This magnificent crown, surmoimted by a cross and arched diadem, is in the Imperial Treasury at Vienna (in the Hofburg), the Keeper of which was good enough to give me permission to use the photograph. There is great divergence of opinion as to its date. Some authorities, as Bock — with whom I agree — believe the crown itself to be early ItaHan work, and the diadem with the name ' Conrad ' to have been a later addition. In this case there is just a possibiUty that the crown is actually that which was used by I^eo III to crown Charles the Great. But some patriotic Teutons, such as v. Falke, who has written a richly illustrated monograph on the subject, assert that both parts were undoubtedly made in Germany, and they insist that the whole cannot be xviii no. PAoa

anything but eleventh-century work, and therefore must be an imperial diadem made specially (at Mainz ?) for the coronation of Conrad II and his consort Gisela in 1027 (see p. 348). There exists also — found in excavating a street in Mainz not very long ago — a collection of beautiful brooches, spangles, earrings, necklaces, etc., which are of work very similar to the arched diadem, and which may very probably have been the coronation finery of Gisela. She was a very energetic and ambitious lady. She was descended through her mother from Charles the Great, and, after having had two husbands, married Conrad when he was only a Count. She was not content till she had got him and herself crowned with the imperial diadem at Rome — an occasion on which much bloodshed was caused, as so often, by quarrels between Germans and Romans, and also by the jealousies of the rival archbishops of Ravenna and Milan. The arched diadem bears, worked in pearls, the words, Chuonradus Dei gratia Imperator Aiigustus. The crown itself is a mass of precious stones, gold fihgree, and pearls. It has three pictures in enamel representing (i) Christ, between two archangels, as King of Kings ; (2) David as the King of Manly Courage ; (3) Solomon as the King of Justice and Wisdom ; (4) Hezekiah as the King of Piety. Photo by S. Schramm, Vienna, photographer to the Court of Rumania.

See footnote, p. 256. They perhaps represent the I^ombard kingdom and its seven provinces. They are silver-gilt. The copper disk on which they stand is modem. Photo G. Bianchi, Monza.

21. (i) S. Maria in Cosmedin, Rome 258

Close to the Tiber and the Round Temple (formerly ' Temple of Vesta '). Built c. 775. Small, but interiorly very beautiful in its proportions. The bell-tower (eighth century) is a good example of a Roman campanile. See Index under ' Campanile.' Photo Anderson.

(2) The Phocas Coi^umn, Rome 258

In the Forum. For centuries ' The nameless column with a buried base.' Excavated, with the help of English money, soon after Byron wrote that line. The inscription shows that the column (taken from some ancient building) was erected in 608 by the Exarch Smaragdus in honour of the odious tyrant Phocas, of Constantinople, whose gilt statue stood on its summit. See pp. 67 «., 220 258. Photo Anderson.

no. »Ao«

22. S. CI.EMENTE, ROME 262

The upper church. See under ' Churches ' in Index. Phofo Alinari.

23. S. V1TA1.E, Ravenna 266

See under ' Churches ' in Index. Cf. Fig. i6. Photo Alinari.

24. Mosaics in S. Pudenziana and S. Prassede, Rome 270

See description, p. 269, and p. 525. The two saints were daughters of Pudens, the host of St. Peter in Rome, and the first-named church is, tradition says, built on the site of the house where the apostle lodged. In the lower picture note that Pope Paschal (817-24), who holds a model of his church, has the square nimbus, which shows that he was still living when the mosaic was made. Note also on the palm-tree a phoenix with a radiate nimbus. Photos Alinari.

25. S. PlETRO, TOSCANEI.I.A 276

See p. 280 and under ' Churches ' in Index. Photo Anderson.

26. S. Maria Maggiore, Toscanei.i.a 280

As Fig. 25. Photo Anderson.

27. Cathedrai, and S. Fosca, Torcei.1.0 284

See p. 283 and under ' Churches ' in Index. For the marble seat in the foreground (' the chair of Attila ') see p. 2S6 w.

Photo Andrson.

28. Cathedrai, of Grado 288

See pp. loi, 285. Grado and Aquileia, both ancient Italian towns and intimately connected with Italian history, have been for more than a century appropriated by Austria. They will doubtless ere long be restored to their mater antiqua. In 568, when the Lombards came streaming down over the Venetian Alps, the citizens of Aquileia (rebuilt after its destruction by Attila in 452) fled once more for refuge to Grado. The Patriarch, Paulinus, brought with him all the relics and treasures of the Aquileian churches, and his successor, EHas, obtained the title of Patriarch of Grado. Patriarch Ehas {c. 578) built the present Cathedral of Grado, doubtless on the site of a more ancient church, taking for his model the basihcas of S. Apollinare in Ravenna. The columns and mosaic floor are evidently from the older church (Byzantine-Ostrogothic). Note the (further) pulpit, with curious reliefs (Ostrogothic ? Lombard ?) of the evangehstic beasts, and surmounted by a Venetian (Byzantine) canopy. Note also the silver pala of the altar, and the (thirteenth-century ?) frescos in the apse. Built on to the church there is an ancient baptistery, which has stone XX

PAOB shutters, as atTorcello. The church has been often restored, and probably under the plaster of the triforium might be found mosaics or frescos. In this church is sung the old medieval liturgy of the Grado patriarchate, the Cayiius patriarchinus. Photo Alinari.

29. The Donation of Constantinh to vSii.vester 304

In the Vatican Slanzc. By Raffaello daColle, designed probably by Raffael. Silvester has the features of Clement VII. Among the spectators are depicted Raffael's friend Castiglione and his pupil Giulio Romano. The scene takes place in the old basilica of St. Peter. Reprodtiction, with permission, from ' Rafael-werk,' published by E. Arnold (Gutbier), Dresden.

30. S. Miniato, Fi^orence 344

See p. 442 and Index. Photo Brogi.

31. Tomb of Beatrice, Mother of Countess Matii^da,

Campo Santo, Pisa 348

Interesting firstly on account of the famous Countess Matilda, whose mother Beatrice was the wife of Boniface, Marquess of Tuscany (pp. 349, 353, 430 ; and note that the predecessor of Boniface was the Marquess, or Margrave, Ugo, called by Dante il gran barone, whose tomb is well known to visitors of the Florentine Badia, and whose mother, Willa, founded the original Badia). Boniface died in 1052, and Beatrice, who had married Godfrey of Lorraine, was captured by Henry and, together with her daughter Matilda, taken to Germany, but they were released in 1056, and it was not till the year before the scene at Canossa (viz. 1076, as stated on the tomb) that Beatrice died and Matilda succeeded. Some state that her body was first deposited in this ancient (late Roman) sarcophagus in 11 16. The hexameter means ' Although a sinner I was called Lady Beatrix [i.e. blest, or sainted].' The following words one expects vainly to make a pentameter, such as In tumulo jaceo quae comitissa fui. They mean ' Placed in a tomb I lie, who [was] a countess.' The pentameter was perhaps spoilt by an illiterate stone-cutter in order to insert a rime. He should have also altered it to In tumulum missa ... As for the connexion of the relief with Niccol5 Pisano, see p. 533. Photo Alinari.