Front matter
v.
y r
Tv
II
Plate I. Apparatus for the Solidification of Carbonic Acid ,
Fig. 1. A. A cylinder of wrought iron, 23 inches in length, 4 in diameter, terminated by cast iron hemispheres; supported by two gudgeons on an iron frame, upon which it revolves.
d. A copper tube closed at bottom, for holding acid.
D. The same j. brass hook for removing the acid holder.
Fig. 2. B. Cylinder of wrought iron to receive the gas. Of the same size as A.
h. A small tube passing down to within a short distance from the bottom, up which the liquefied gas is forced by the pressure of the gas above.
E. A brass box, 4 inches in diameter 4 in depth, to receive the solidified gas.
o. The same without the cover, shewing the interior ; the horizontal pipe, (the mouth of which is also seen in E, under the upper clamp by which and the one below, the cover is confined when the box is used,) fits upon a short jet 3. The centre of each part of the box is pierced with several small holes communicating with the wooden handles, which are hollow and open to allow of the escaj e of the expanding gas- In front of the inner mouth of the horizontal pipe is a short curved slip oi sheet brass for tne purpose of preventing the solidified gas being too rapidly driven out of the handles.
f. A copper pipe 16 inches in length and | inch in diameter, terminated by connecting pieces, by meansot which the two iron cylinders can be connected, for the transfer of the gas.
g. A hold-fast of iron with a small projection that fits into the hole W in fig. 1. By this the cylinder can be secured from turning when the plug or valve is opened.
li . A wrench for turning the plug
i. Small brass wrench for turning the steel screw of the valve-plugs in the upper parts of the cylinders A. B.
m. A vessel of zinc, holding the quantity of water required for each charge.
n. A funnel of zinc for introducing the carbonate of soda into the cylinder A.
Fig. 3- Section of one of the connecting screws and pipe ; the small projecting part on the flange of the pipe fits into the outlet of the screws of the valve plugs l and 2.
The cylinder A may be called the Generator, B the Receiver. The materials employed for each charge of the Generator, are, Bicarbonate of Soda in powder 2| lbs. ; Water at 100° 6£ lbs.; Sulphuric acid 1 lb. 7^ oz. . „
The valve plugs are of brass and alike, but a section of one only is represented (in Fig. 1. A.) with a double cone of steel, which is accurately ground to its seat ; the stem is cut into a fine screw and passes through the upper part of the valve-plug, it is screwed up or down by means of the wrench i having a square hole into which the square end of the stem fits. It will be seen that when the cone is screwed up there is an outlet for any gas from the cylinder through the horizontal branch of the valve-plug, and when it is screwed down the passage is closed. The opening under the cone, through the lower part of the valve-plug, is one tenth of an inch diameter. When the cone is screwed up no gas can escape above it, as the upper part is also well ground to a conical cavity.
To charo-e the generator. Unscrew the valve plug and remove it from the end ot the cylinder ; through the funnel n pour in the soda salt; add the warm water, remove the funnel, and with a stick stir the salt and water, breaking down any lumps. Pour the sulphuric acid into the copper acid holder D, and with the hooky introduce it into the generator. Remove the hook and having carefully cleaned all the screws with a tooth brush (not with a cloth) and oiled them, screw in the valve plu^ making it secure by the aid of ihe wrench and holdfast. Screw down the steel valve firmly.° Turn the generator and cause it to revolve several times, that the acid may be thrown upon the soda ; repeat this and occasionally allow the cylinder to remain with the valve downward. Let the generator remain 5 or 10 minutes in the position represented in the plate, until the gas has disengaged itself and collected in the upper part of the cylinder Haying previously cooled the receiver in iced water (in which it should be immersed up to the valve) connect it with one end of the pipe/ securing the screw with a wrench. Connect the other end ol the pipe with the valve plug of Fig. 2. B also very firmly. Open the steel valve of the receiver by screwing it up entirely — then, slowly, and partially, open that of the generator. the Sas will pass over and in about two minutes the pressure will be equalized, no more gas then passing • close the steel valve of the receiver and then that of the generator. Disconnect the generator, open the valve to allow the remaining gas to escape, having a vessel ready to receive the liquid which soon follows. When no more liquid passes out, remove the valve-plug, place it m a basin of clear water ; and having lifted out the acid holder, pour out the sulphate ot soda and wash out the inside of the generator with water. Repeat the charges in the same manner
XIV
Explanation of Plates.
as long as any gas is heard to pass from the generator to the receiver. Nine charges I have ^usually found sufficient, which, if well managed, will completely till the box E with solid gas ‘several times.
To obtain the solid. Having previously cooled the box in ice, wipe it dry and secure the top on with the clamps. Screw the coupling and short jet (3) upon the valve plug (as represented I) of the Receiver. Place the receiver between the knees, and the box upon the jet. Open the steel valve, slowly, until a white vapour issues from the handle^ of the box; gradually enlarge the opening, and when the brass box has become thickly covered with the condensed and frozen vapour of the apartment, the farther escape of the gas may be stopped by closing the valve. On removing the box and opening it, the while solid acid will be found within.
The greatest care is necessary to avoid introducing any dirt, fibres of wood, cloth, &c. into the vessels, as they are liable to be forced under the valves and into the small tubes oud thus defeat the process.
Plate II.
Figs. I and 2 represent a method of washing precipitates : which will bo often found use ful. By this arrangement a column of pure water can be made continually to pass through a powder or precipitate. A flask, or bottle a, fig. 2, is filled with water and is closed by a cork, having a glass tube of the shape, fig. 1, passed through it. This tube may be about four inches in length and half an inch iu diameter. When the flask or bottle is inverted as in fig. 2 u, the water will run out only till the air within it is expanded to a certain degree, the capillarity of the tube a fig. I, not allowing the escape of any water into the air. But if the tube <i is plunged into a liquid, the water from the flask or bottle will flow into the liquid. As the air expands the water is forced down the tube d and a bubble of air passes from d through b and ascends into the bottle. A correponding quantity of water is forced down, and every successive bubble of air has the same effect. This water flows out at the point a. and if that point is dipped into a liquid contained in a funnel, the level of the water in the latter is kept at the same point, as for example at the linec, fig. 1. Fig. 2 exhibits the arrangement, with a vessel below to receive the filtered liquid.
Fig. 3, 4, 5. Gahn’s cylinder holder for flasks, cylinders, jars, 6ic. 5 represents the principal portion of this apparatus (seen from above). Fig. 4, exhibits the same in profile. The instrument is made of wood. A slit Jtb of an inch deep is made in the block at u b , and in this slit a strong baud or ribbon of the same width, is placed, the end of it being secured bv a thick edge or seam down the side b. The end of this hand is then carried round from a, in the direction A h G t E and through the slit fgt (fig. 4.) into the conical hole C, where it is fastened in another slit k t, cut in the conical peg D. The band is wound up round the conical peg and fixed, when necessary, by pressing the peg into the conical hole. The band can be loosened by slackening the conical peg. If a glass cylinder as G (tig. o) is placed in the triangular opening h i it can be held fast or let loose at pleasure. The other part of this apparatus consists of a frame (fig. 3) I H M, which can be screwed to the side of a pneumatic trough by the screw at M. The upright rod D is cylindrical, the arm I square and adapted to the square hole F in fig. 4. The screws N and K permit any required adjustment.
Fig. 6 represents a convenient apparatus for coudensing vapours, o b, A tube of tin 2 inches wide 17 inches long, c, A leaden pipe passing along inside to within an inch of each extremity of the tin tube, it is open at the lower end, but passes through the wide tube near the top terminating in a funnel, e, A pipe entering the upper side of the larger tube, close to where tne other pipe passes out, and hanging down an inch or two below the wide tube. This short tube is open at both ends. A glnss tube, 23 inches in length, is placed into the tin tube through corks at a and b which fit the latter and prevent the passage of water. The glass tube should he somewhat tapering, about an inch wide at the upper end and rather less than half an inch at the lower end. The upper end should be bordered or have a rim, so as to permit the insertion of a cork. Water poured into the funnel d can only escape after traversing the tube at e and thus the glass tube can be kept surrounded by cold water.
Fig. 7. Cooper’s mercurial receiver, d d, The receiver to be filled with mercury; a basin is placed below the mouth to receive what may be displaced by the gas as it passes in from the flask a.
Fig. 8 represents Seffstroem’s support, made entirely of wood. The pieces can be adjusted by means of the screws, to grasp a vessel or tube and support it at any desired height or angle.
Fig. 9. Hare's apparatus for exploding hydrogen and chlorine. A flask is half filled with chlorine and transferred to the pan P with its orifice over that of 'a pipe communicating with the cock C and flexible pipe extending to a self- regulating reservoir . (Fig. 120, page 123) of hydrogen. The flask is surrounded with a cylinder of wire gauze. Just before the explosion is desired hydrogen is admitted to displace the water left in the flask. The pan should contain water sufficient to cover the mouth of the flask. A mirror is used to reflect the solar rays upon the flask. See Amer. Jour. xxix. 243.
Section XVII. HYDROGEN AND SELENIUM,
XVIII. HYDROGEN AND PHOSPHORUS,
XIX. NITROGEN AND CARBON,
XX. SULPHUR AND CARBON,
CHAPTER IV. Metals
Section I. GENERAL PROPERTIES, ...
II. METALLIC BASES OF THE ALKALIES.
Potassium, ......
Lithium, ......
III. METALLIC BASES OF THE ALKALINE EARTHS.
Strontium, ...*..
Magnesium, ......
IV. METALLIC BASES OF THE EARTHS.
Aluminium, ......
Glucinium, ......
Yttrium, ......
Thorium, . . . . . .
Zirconium, ......
V. METALS, THE OXIDES OF WHICH ARE NEITHER ALKALIES
NOR EARTHS.
METALS WHICH DECOMPOSE AT A RED HEAT.
Manganpse,
Iron,
Zinc,
Cadmium,
Tin, .
Cobalt,
Nickel,
VI. METALS; WHICH DO NOT DECOMPOSE WATER, &c.
Arsenic, .....
Vanadium,
Molybdenum,
Tungsten,
Columbium,
Uranium,
Lead,
VII. METALS, THE RED HEAT.
Mercury, .
Gold,
OXIDES OF WHICH ARE REDUCED AT A
240 245
250 250
265 268
271 277 280 282
294 298
Contents.
Palladium,
Rhodium,
Osmium and Iridium,
Latanium,
Chapter V
Section I. SALTS.
Order 1. Oxysalts, * Sulphates,
Double Sulphates, .
Sulphites,
Nitrates, .
Chlorates,
lodates,
Phosphates,
Arseniates,
Chromates,
Borates,
Carbonates,
II. Order 2. Hydro-salts, .
III. Order 3. Sulphur-salts,
IV. Order 4. Haloid-salts, .
CHAPTER VI. Organic Chemistry
Section I.
II.
VEGETABLE PRINCIPLES, Theory of Amides,
“ of Benzoyl,
“ of Ethers, .
“ of Pyracids,
“ of Substitutions,
VEGETABLE ACIDS.
Oxalic acid,
Rhodizonie acid,
Croconic acid,
Formic acid,
Mellitic,
Succinic acid,
Lactic acid,
Benzoic acid, .
Malic acid,
Citric acid,
Tartaric acid,
Meconic acid, .
Gallic acid,
Kinic acid,
Tannic acid,
Stearic acid,
Margaric acid,
Oleic acid,
Azulmic acid,
31®
*
321 330 332 332 339
345 344
347 353 355 558
364 365,
366 366
383 383
388 388 390
391 391 xviii Contents.
Indigotic acid,
Carbazotic acid,
Pectic acid, , . .
Crenic acid,
Apocrenic acid,
Althioaic acid, . i
Eth ionic acid, . .
0 Sulphonaphthalic acid, . .
Su'pho-indigotic acid,
Formo-benzoilic acid,
III. CYANOGEN AND ITS COMPOUNDS,
Mellon, ....
Melamiu, . . ,
Melain, ....
Ammclin,
Ammelid,
Cyanic acid,
Fulminic acid,
Cyanuric acid,
Cyamelid, . .
Hydrocyanic acid, . .
Cyanurets, • .
Hydroferrocyanic acid, . .
Ferrocyanurcts,
Ferrid -cyanogen, • .
. Hydro ferridcyanic acid,
Chlorides of Cyanogen,
Iodides of “
Cyanogen and Sulphur, and Water, and Ammonia, .
Cyanilic acid,
IV. HYPOTHETICAL COMPOUNDS OF CYANOGEN
AND
CAR-
BONIC OXIDE,
Uric acid,
Allantoin,
Alloxan, v
Alloxanic acid,
Mesoxalic acid,
Mykomelinic acid, . «
Parabanic acid, . . .
Oxaluric acid, . . .
Thionuric acid, .
Uramil,
Uramilic acid. . . •
Alloxantin,
Murexid, .
Murexan,
Uric oxide, .
•
Cystic oxide,
•
Chapter VII. I
Section l. VEGETABLE ALKALIES, .
.
Cinchonia, .
.
.
xix
II. INTERMEDIATE BODIES, . . . .441
Sulphuric ether, ...... 448
Hydrochloric ether, . . . . . 451
Nitric ether, ...... 453
Oxalic ether, , . • . • • 453
CEnauthic ether, ..... 454
Pyroxylic spirit, . ..... 454
CHAPTER VIII. Section I
COLOURING MATTERS, .
CHAPTER IX. Section I
OLEAGINOUS SUBSTANCES,
. . 458
II.
VOLATILE OILS,
Resins, .....
Balsams, ....
III.
GUM RESINS, ....
IV.
NEUTRAL VEGETABLE PRINCIPLES, .
Oxamide, ....
Benzoyl, ....
Spiroil, .
Sugar, ....
Amylaceous substances,
Starch, .
Amidin, .....
Hordein, •' -
Lignin, .
Xyloidine, .
Glutinous substances,
Albumen, ....
Emulsin, ....
XX
Caoutchouc,
Extractive,
Contents.
Products of the Destructive Distillation of Vegetable Substances.
Naphtha, 477
Naphthalin, ...... 479
Animal charcoal, ..... 481
V. OF THE PARTS OF PLANTS, . .482
Colouring matter, ...... 486
VI. PHENOMENA AND PRODUCTS OF FERMENTATION. . 4S7
Acetous fermentation, ..... 489
Panary fermentation, ..... 490
Putrefaction, ...... 490
CHAPTER X. Animal Substances
Sectioh I. ULTIMATE PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL MATTER, AND PRO-
DUCTS OF ITS DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION, 490
III. BONE, MUSCLE, &c. . . . . .493
IV. BLOOD, RESPIRATION, ANIMAL HEAT, . 494
V. SALIVARY AND GASTRIC JUICES, BILE, &c. . 600
VI. MILK AND CHYLE, . . . . .601
VII. OLEAGINOUS AND FATTY SUBSTANCES, . 602
VIII. MUCUS, PUS, &c. . . . . .603
IX. UREA-URINE, ..... 504
Urinary calculi, ...... 505
ADDENDA.
I
Radiation of Caloric, ....... 506
Influence of Colour on Absorption of Odours, ..... 506
Compound blow-pipe, ....... 507
Contents.
xxi
Photographic Drawing, ....... 507
Detection of Iodine and Bromine, ..... 503
Oxide of Phosphorus, ....... 503
Detection of Nitric Acid, ...... 509
Detection of Nitrogen, ........ 509
Indelible Ink, ........ 509
Salts of Baryta and Strontia, ...... 609
Nature of Ferment, . . . . . . .511
Respiration of Plants, . . . . . . . 5 1 1
New Compound of Mercury, ....... 512
Appendix
Chemical Formulae, .......
Wollaston’s Scale, .......
Table of Elastic Force of Vapour, .....
“ “ u of Vapours of Alcohol and Ether, . . .
“ of the Quantity of Oil of Vitriol and Anhydrous Acid, u of Muriatic (Hydrochloric) Acid, ..... u of the Quantity of Real or Anhydrous Nitric Acid, .
“ of Lowitz, showing the Quantity of Absolute Alcohol in spirits of different gravity, ........
Specific Gravity of Essential Oils, .....
“ “ of Oils of Fermented Liquors, ....
Table of Weights and Measures, .....
Description of Apparatus for Obtaining Potassium, &c.
Barium, Strontium and Calcium, .....
Absorption of Gases by Charcoal, .....
General Index, ......
Index to Plates
522 623
I
ERRATA.
44 50.
44 65.
“ 79.
44 95.
“ 107.
“ 115. 44 115.
« 120.
“ 125. 44 161. 44 166.
“ 184.
“ 209.
“ 213.
“ 219.
“ 257. 44 272.
388. 44 468.
Line 17, for “system ” read systems.
Line 20, for “ square prismatic " read double oblique prismatic. After “ 176,” insert 7.
Before “A curious ” insert 8.
Foot note, for “ Hares’s ” read Hare’s.
Third line for “ 11° ” read 41°.
5th line, for sjUxt^ov read tjJLsxtsov.
4th line, for“ smaller ” similar.
Top of page for “ Gasometers ” read Graduated, vessels.
Lino 28, lor “ substract ” read subtract.
Line 29, ditto.
Foot note, the reference should be to Frontispiece.
For “ Doebereiner ” read Dobereiner.
In margin, for “ sodidum ” read sodium.
6th line, for “ sulphurious ” read sulphurous.
12th line, for “sodium ” read salts.
Paragraph 732 for “ ammonical ” read ammoniacal.
In the Formula for Olefiant gas, add 2 after the second H Last line, for “ mercury ” read Hydrocyanic acid.
5th line for Fe read Fe.
In margin, dele “ Poisonous effects.”
Line 29, for “ whortleberry ” read bear-berry.
Line 29, for 44 benzoly” read benzoyl.
MANUAL OF CHEMISTRY.
Chapter I
OF THE POWERS AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER AND OF THE GENERAL LAWS OF CHEMICAL CHANGES.
1. It is the object of Chemistry to investigate all changes in the object of constitution of matter, whether effected by heat, mixture or other chemistry;, means.*
Most of the substances belonging to our globe are constantly undergoing alterations in sensible qualities, and one variety of matter becomes as it were transmuted into another. Such changes, whether natural or artificial, whether slowly or rapidly performed, are called chemical. t The ends of this branch of knowledge are the application of natural substances to new uses, for increasing the comforts and enjoyments of man, and the demonstration of the order, harmony, and intelligent design of the system of the earth.
2. The foundations of chemical philosophy are observation, expe- pounja., riment, and analogy. By observation, facts are distinctly andtions. minutely impressed on the mind. By analogy, similar facts are connected. By experiment, new facts are discovered; and in the progression of knowledge, observation, guided by analogy, leads to experiment, and analogy, confirmed by experiment, becomes scientific truth. D.1,2.
* The word Chemistry seems to be of Egyptian origin, and to have been originally 0ri„in nf lhe equivalent to our phrase natural philosophy in its most extensive sense. In process of term, time it seems to have acquired a move limited signification, and to have been confined to the art of working metals. In the third century, we find it used in a much more limited sense, signifying the ar£ of making: gold and silver. Those who professed this art gradually assumed the form of a sect, under the name of Alchemists ; a term which is supposed to be merely the word chemist, with the Arabian article al prefixed.
The great object of the alchemists was to find out the means of converting the baser metals to gold, and the grand instrument by which this was to be effected was the philosopher’s stone. T. i. 19.
t Chemistry is the science which treats of those events and changes in natural bo- Definitions, dies, which are not accompanied by sensible motions. T- i. 18.
It is the object of Chemistry to discover and explain the changes of composition that occur among the integrant and constituent parts of different bodies. H. i. 12.
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You’ve reached the end of A manual of chemistry : containing the principal facts of the science, in the order in which they are discussed and illustrated in the lectures at Harvard university, N.E. and several other colleges and medical schools in the United States : compiled and arranged as a text book for the use of students, and persons attending lectures on chemistry.