A manual of ancient history, from the earliest times to the fall of the Western empire, comprising the history of Chaldæa, Assyria, Media, Babylonia, Lydia, Phoenicia, Syria, Judæa, Egypt, Carthage, Persia, Greece, Macedonia, Rome, and Parthia

Preface

The work here given to the public has been contemplated by the Author for several years. The ' Handbuch' of Professor Heeren, originally published in 1799, and corrected by its writer up to the year 1828, is, so far as he knows, the only modern work of reputation treating in a compendious form the subject of Ancient History generally. Partial works, i. e. works embracing portions of the field, have been put forth more recently, as, particularly, the important * Manuel ' of M. Lenormant {Manuel d'kistoire ancienne de V Orient jusqiHaitx guerres Mediqties. Paris, 1868-9; 3 vols. i2mo). But no work with the scope and on the scale of Professor Heeren's has, so far as the present writer is aware, made its appearance since 1828. That work itself, in its English dress, is, he believes, out of print ; and it is one, so great a portion of which has become antiquated by the progress of historical criticism and discovery, that it cannot now be recommended to the student, unless with large reserves and numerous cautions. Under these circumstances, it seemed to the present writer desirable to replace the ' Handbuch' of Heeren by a Manual conceived on the same scale, extending over the same period, and treating (in the main) of the same nations.

vi PREFACE.

Heeren's Hand-book always appeared to him admirable in design, and, considering the period at which it was written, excellent in execution. He has been content to adopt, generally, its scheme and divisions ; merely seeking in every case to bring the history up to the level of our present advanced knowledge, and to embody in his work all the really ascertained results of modern research and discovery. He has not suffered himself to be tempted by the example of M. Lenormant to include in the Manual an account of the Arabians or the Indians ; since he has not been able to convince himself that either the native traditions of the former, as reported by Abulfeda, Ibn-Khaldoun, and others, or the Epic poems of the latter (the Maha-Bharata SindRamayana) , are trustworthy sources of history. With more hesitation he has decided on not including in his present work the history of the Sassanidse, which is sufficiently authentic, and which in part runs parallel with a period that the Manual embraces. But, on the whole, it appeared to him that the Sassanidse belonged as much to Modern as to Ancient History — to the Byzantine as to the Roman period. And in a doubtful case, the demands of brevity, which he felt to be imperative in such a work as a ' Manual/ seemed entitled to turn the scale.

Introduction

History. — History Proper, its divisions. — Ancient History, how best distingixished from Modem. — Sources of History: i. Antiquities; 2. Written Records, including (a) Inscriptions, (&) Books. — Importance of Inscriptions. — Coins. — Books, ancient and modern. — Cognate sciences to History: i. Chronology; 2. Geography. — Chief eras. — Chronological Monuments. — Works on Chronology.—Works on Geography. — Modes of dividing Ancient History. — Scheme of the Work .......

Book I

History of the Ancient Asiatic and African States and Kingdoms from the Earliest Times to the Foundation of the Persian Monarchy by Cyrus the Great . . . . . . . . .11

PART I. Asiatic Nations

Preliminary Remarks on the Geography of Asia . . . . .

Prehminary Observations on the General Character of the Early Asiatic Kingdoms History of the Ancient Asiatic Kingdoms previous to Cyrus

I. Chaldsean Monarchy ......

II. Assyrian Monarchy ......

III. Median Monarchy ......

IV. Babylonian Monarchy .....

V. Kingdoms in Asia Minor : i. Phrygia; 2. Cilicia; 3. Lydia .

VI. Phoenicia .......

ASil. Syria ........

VIII. Judsea

a. From the Exodus to the Establishment of the Monarchy

b. From the Establishment of the Monarchy to the Separation into

Two Kingdoms .....

e. From the Separation of the Kingdoms to the Captivity under Nebuchadnezzar ....

46 49

VIU

CONTENTS.

PART II. African Nations. Preliminary Remarks on the Geography of Ancient Africa

Historical Sketch of the Ancient African States .....

I. Egypt

II, Carthage ........

a. From the Foundation of the City to the Commencement of the

Wars with Syracuse ......

b. From the Commencement of the Wars with Syracuse to the

Breaking-out of the first War with Rome

58 58

75\

BOOK 11.

History of Persia from the Accession of Cyrus to the Destruction of the Empire by Alexander the Great .......

Book III

History of the Grecian States from the Earliest Times to the Accession of

Alexander the Great . . , . . . . . 106

Geographical Outline of Greece ....... 106

First Period.

The Ancient Traditional History, from the Earliest Times to the Dorian

Occupation of the Peloponnese . . . . . • ii7

Second Period.

History of Greece from the Dorian Conquest of the Peloponnese to the Commencement of the Wars with Persia ....

Part I. History of the principal Hellenic States in Greece Proper I. Sparta II. Athens

Part II. History of the other Grecian States I. In the Peloponnese : —

a. Achsea

b. Arcadia

c. Corinth

d. Elis .

e. Sicyon II. In Central Greece : —

a. Megaris

b. Boeotia

c. Phocis

d. Locris

e. ^tolia /. Acarnania

CONTENTS.

ix

PAGE

III. In Northern Greece : —

a. Thessaly ,...••

. 141

b. Epirus ......

IV. In the Islands :—

a. Corcyia ......

. 142

b. Cephallenia

• 143

c. Zacynthus

• 143

d. Mgins,

• 143

e. Euboea

• 143

/. The Cyclades

• 143

g. Lemnos

• 144

b. Thasos

• 144

i. Crete

• 144

7. Cyprus

. 145

V. Greek Colonies .

. 146

i. Colonies of the Eastern Group : —

a. The ^olian Colonies

. 148

b. The Ionian Colonies .

• 149

c. The Dorian Colonies .

. 150

d. Colonies on the North Coast of the yEgean

• 151

e. Colonies of the Propontis

. 152

/. Colonies of the Euxine

. 152

ii. Colonies of the Western Group : —

a. Colonies of the Illyrian Coast

• 153

b. Colonies in Italy

. 154

c. Colonies in Sicily

. 158

Syracuse .

. 158

Megara Hyblaea

. 160

Gela

. 160

Camarina

. 161

Agrigentum

. 161

Selinus

. 162

Naxos

. 162

Leontini .

. 162

Catana

. 163

Zancl6 or Messana

. 163

Himera ....

. 164

d. Colonies on the Coasts of Gaul and Spain

. 164

e. Colonies on the Coast

of Africa

. 165

Third Period.

History of Greece from the Commencement of the Wars with Persia to the

Battle of Chgeroneia . . . . . . . .167

CONTENTS.

Book IV. Pagb

History of the Macedonian Monarchy . . . . 7 '194

Geographical Outline of Macedonia . . . . . -194

Historical Sketch of the Monarchy : —

First Period.

From the Commencement of the Monarchy to the Death of Alexander the Great 195

Seco?id Period.

From the Death of Alexander the Great to the Battle of Ipsus . . .209

Third Period.

History of the States into which the Macedonian Monarchy was broken up after the Battle of Ipsus .....

Part I. Histoiy of the Syrian Kingdom of the Seleucidse

Part II. History of the Egyptian Kingdom of the Ptolemies

Part III. History of Macedonia, and of Greece, from the Death of Alexander to the Roman Conquest

Part IV. Histoiy of the Smaller States and Kingdoms formed out of the Fragments of Alexander's Monarchy I. Kingdom of Pergamus II. Kingdom of Bithynia .

III. Kingdom of Paphlagonia

IV. Kingdom of Pontus V. Kingdom of Cappadocia

VI. Kingdom of the Greater Ai'menia VII. Kingdom of Annenia Minor .

VIII. Kingdom of Bactria IX. Kingdom of Parthia .

X. Kingdom of Judaea

a. From the Captivity to the Fall of the Persian Empire

b. From the Fall of the Persian Empire to the Re-establishment

of an Independent Kingdom

c. From the Re-establishment of an Independent Kingdom to the

Full Establishment of the Power of Rome

d. From the Full Establishment of Roman Power to the Destruc

tion of Jerusalem by Titus ....

Book V

PART I. History of Rome.

Preliminary Remarks on the Geography of Ancient Italy . . -320

Sketch of the History of Rome : —

First Period.

The Ancient Traditional History from the Earliest Times to the Commencement

of the Republic ........ 334

CONTENTS. xi

Second Period.

PAGE

From the Foundation of the Republic to the Commencement of the Samnite

Third Period.

From the Breaking-out of the First Samnite War to the Commencement of the

Wars with Carthage . . . . . . . -37^

Fourth Period.

From the Commencement of the First War with Carthage to the Rise of the

Civil Broils under the Gracchi ...... 384

Fifth Period.

From the Commencement of Internal Troubles under the Gracchi to the Establishment of the Empire under Augustus . . . . .412

Sixth Period.

From the Establishment of the Empire under Augustus to the Destruction of the

Roman Power in the West by Odoacer . . . . -453

Preliminary Remarks on the Geographical Extent and Principal Divisions of the

Roman Empire ........ 453

Historical Sketch of the Roman Empire : —

First Section. From the Battle of Actium to the Death of Commodus . 466

Second Section. From the Death of Commodus to the Accession of Diocletian 500 Third Section. From the Accession of Diocletian to the Final Division of the

Fourth Section. From the Final Division of the Empire to the Deposition of

Romulus Augustus ........ 540

PART II. History of Parthia.

Geogi'aphical Outline of the Parthian Empire ....'. 549 Sketch of the History of Parthia ; —

First Period.

From the Foundation of the Kingdom by Arsaces to the Establishment of the

Empire by Mithridates I . , . . . . -553

Second Period.

From the Establishment of the Empire by Mithridates I to the Commencement

of the Wars with Rome .""...... 557

Third Period.

From the Commencement of the Wars with Rome to the Destruction of the

Empire by Artaxerxes . . . , . . .562

CONTENTS.

Appendix

Genealogical Tables .

I. Macedonian Royal Houses : —

A. House of Alexander the Great

B. House of Antipater

C. House of Antigonus II. Royal House of the Seleucidae

III. Royal House of the Ptolemies

IV. Royal House of Pergamus V. Royal House of Bithynia

VI. Royal House of Pontus VII. Royal House of Cappadocia .

VIII. Jewish Royal Houses : —

A. Royal House of the Maccabees

B. Royal House of the Herods IX. Roman Imperial Houses : —

A. The Julian House

B. The Claudian House . . '

C. The House of Constantine the Great

D. The House of Theodosius the Great X. Parthian Royal Houses : —

A. The House of Arsaces I

B. The House of Sanatrceces

C. The House of Artabanus II

D. The House of Vonones II

Errata.

Page 225, U. I, 2, omit the rest of the sentence after Demetrius. Page 307, 1. 28, for Demetrius read Eucr&tides.

MANUAL OF ANCIENT HISTORY.

INTRODUCTION.

I . The word * History,' which etymologically means ' inquiry ' or 'research/ and which has many slightly differing uses, is attached in modern parlance pre-eminently and especially to accounts of the rise, progress, and affairs of Nations. The consideration of man, prior to the formation of political communities and apart from them, belongs to Natural History — and especially to that branch of it which is called Anthropology — but not to History Proper. History Proper is the history of States or Nations, both in respect of their internal affairs, and in regard to their dealings one with another. Under the former head, one of the most important branches is Constitutional History, or the history of Governments j under the latter are included not only accounts of the wars, but likewise of the friendly relations of the different States, and of their commercial or other intercourse.

Anthropology, though not History Proper, is akin to it, and is a science of which the historical student should not be ignorant. It treats of man prior to the time when ' History ' takes him up, and thus forms, in some sort, the basis on which History rests. The original condition of man, his primary habitat or place of abode, the mode and time of his dispersion ; the questions of the formation of races, of their differences, and of their affinities : these, and similar subjects, which belong properly to Anthropology, are of interest to the historian, and underlie his proper field. The most important works bearing on these matters are : —

Ike Book of Genesis — the only extant work which claims to give an authoritative account of the creation and dispersion of mankind, and which is universally admitted to contain most interesting notices of the primitive condition of the human race, and of important facts belonging to very remote times. Kalisch's Historical and Critical Commentary, London, Longman, 1855, contains a mass of valuable, though not always quite sober, illustration from the best modern sources.

The Physical History of Mankind, by Dr. Prichard, London, 3rd edition, 1836 — a work of great grasp and power, elaborately illustrated, and in many respects of enduring value; but in some points behind the existing state of our knowledge. Not, however, at present superseded by any general work.

Prehistoric Man, by Sir John Lubbock. London, 1866. This book is based mainly on recent researches into the earliest vestiges of man upon the earth, as those believed to have been found underneath the floors of caves, in ancient gravel deposits, in the soil at the bottom of lakes, in the so-called ' kitchenmiddings,' and the like. It is well illustrated.

1. History Proper is usually divided either into two, or into three, portions. If the triple division is adopted, the portions are called respectively, ' Ancient History," the ' History of the Middle Ages," and 'Modern History.' If the twofold division is preferred, the middle portion Is suppressed^ and History is regarded as falling under the two heads of ' Ancient ' and ' Modern.'

3. ' Ancient ' History is improperly separated from ' Modern ' by the arbitrary assumption of a particular date. A truer, better, and more convenient division may be made by regarding as ancient all that belongs to a state of things which has completely passed away, and as modern all that connects itself inseparably with the present. In Western Europe the irruption of the Northern Barbarians, in Eastern Europe, in Asia, and in Africa the Mohammedan conquests, form the line of demarcation between the two portions of the historic field ; since these events brought to a close the old condition of things, and introduced the condition which continues to the present day.

4. The Sources of History fall under the two heads of ^written records^ and antlqultleSj or the actual extant remains of ancient times, whether buildings, excavations, sculptures, pictures, vases, or other productions of art. These antiquities exist either in the countries anciently inhabited by the several nations, where they may be seen In situ i or in museums, to which they have been removed by the moderns, partly for their better preservation, partly for purposes of general study and comparison ; or, finally, in private collections, where they are for the most part inaccessible, and subserve the vanity of the collectors.

No general attempt has ever been made to collect into one work a description or representation of all these various remains; and, indeed, their multiplicity is so great that such a collection is barely conceivable. Works, however, on limited portions of the great field of ' Antiquities ' are numerous ; and frequent mention will have to be made of them in speaking of the sources for the history of different states and periods. Here those only will be noticed which have something of a general character.

Oberlin, Orbis antiqiii monumentis suis illustrati primce linecs. Argentorati, 1790, Extremely defective, but remarkable, considering the time at which it was written.

INTRODUCTION. 3

CaylUS, Recueil cf Antiqiiites Egyptiennes, Etrusques, Grecques, et Romaines. Paris, 1752-67. Full of interest, but with engravings of a very rude and primitive character.

MoNTFAUCON, V Antiquite expliquee et representee en figures. Paris, 1719-24 ; 15 vols, folio.

Smith, Dr. W., Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. London, 2nd edition, 1853.

Fergusson, James, History of Architecture in all Countries, from the Earliest Times to the Present Day. London, 1865-7.

Birch, Samuel, Ancient Pottery. London, 1858.

5. The second source of Ancient History, 'written records.^ is at once more copious and more important than the other. It consists of two main classes of documents — ist, Inscriptions on public monuments, generally contemporary with the events recorded in them j and andly. Books, the works of ancient or modern writers on the subject.

6. Whether Inscriptions were, or were not, the most ancient kind of written memorial is a point that can never be determined. What is certain is, that the nations of antiquity made use to a very large extent of this mode of commemorating events. In Egypt, in Assyria, in Babylonia, in Armenia, in Persia, in Phoenicia, in Lycia, in Greece, in Italy, historical events of importance were from time to time recorded in this way — sometimes on the natural rock_, which was commonly smoothed for the purpose j sometimes on obelisks or pillars; frequently upon the walls of temples, palaces, and tombs ; occasionally upon metal plates, or upon tablets and cylinders of fine clay — hard and durable materials all of them, capable of lasting hundreds or even thousands of years, and in many cases continuing to the present day. The practice prevailed, as it seems, most widely in Assyria and in Egypt ; it was also in considerable favour in Persia and among the Greeks and Romans. The other nations used it more sparingly. It was said about half a century ago that 'of the great mass of inscriptions still extant, but few comparatively are of any importance as regards history.' But this statement, if true when it was made, which may be doubted, at any rate requires modification now. The histories of Egypt and Assyria have been in a great measure reconstructed from the inscriptions of the two countries. The great inscription of Behistun has thrown much light upon the early history of Persia. That on the Delphic tripod has illustrated the most glorious period of Greece. It is now generally felt that inscriptions are among the most important

B 1 of ancient records, and that their intrinsic value makes up to a great extent for their comparative scantiness.

General collections of ancient inscriptions do not as yet exist. But the following, which have more or less of a general character, may be here mentioned : —

Gruter, Inscriptiones aniiquoe totius orbis Romani, cura J. G. Gr^VII. Amstel. 1707 ; 4 vols, folio.

POCOCKE, R., Inscriptionum antiquarum Gr<Bcarum et Latinarum liber. Londini, 1752 ; folio.

Chandler, R., Inscriptiones antiques pleraque nondum edita. Oxonii, I774 j folio.

OsANN, Fr., Sylloge Inscriptionum antiquarum Grcecarum et Latinarum. Lipsiae, 1834; folio.

A large number of cuneiform inscriptions, Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian, will be found in the Expedition Scientifique en Mesopotamie of M. JULES Oppert. Paris, 1858. The Persian, Babylonian, and Scythian or Turanian transcripts of the great Behistun Inscription are contained in the Journal of the Asiatic Society, vols, x., xiv., and xv., to which they were contributed by Sir H. Rawlinson and Mr. Norris. A small but valuable collection of inscriptions, chiefly cuneiform, is appended to Mr. Rich's Narrative of a Journey from. Bussora to Persepolis. London, 1839. .

7. Under the head of Inscribed Monuments must be included Coins, which have in most instances a legend, or legends, and which often throw considerable light upon obscure points of history. The importance of coins is no doubt the greatest in those portions of ancient history where the information derivable from authors — especially from contemporary authors — is the scantiest j their use however is not limited to such portions, but extends over as much of the historical field as admits of numismatic illustration.

Collections of ancient coins exist in most museums and in many libraries. The collection of the British Museum is among the best in the world. The Bodleian Library has a good collection ; and there is one in the library of Christ Church, Oxford, possessing many points of interest. In default of access to a good collection, or in further prosecution of numismatic study, the learner may consult the following comprehensive works : —

Spanheim, Dissertatio de usu et prcestantia Numismatum. London and Amsterdam, 1706-17; 2 vols, folio.

Eckhel, De Doctrina Nummorum Veterum. Vindebonee, 1792-8 ; 8 vols. 4to.

MiONNET, Description des Medailles. Paris, 1806-37 ; 16 vols. 8vo., copiously illustrated.

Humphreys, Ancient Coins and Medals. London, 1850. In this work, by means of embossed plates, facsimiles of the obverse and reverse of many coins are produced.

Leake, Numismata Hellenica. London, 1854.

Works upon coins, embracing comparatively narrow fields, are numerojas, and often specially valuable. Many such works will be noticed among the sources for the history of particular times and nations.

8. The ' Books ' from which ancient history may be learnt are

INTRODUCTION. 5

of two kinds — (i) Ancient j and (2) Modern. Ancient works which treat the subject in a general way are neither numerous, nor (with one exception) very valuable. The chief of those now extant are : —

DiODORUS SICULUS, Bibliotheca Historica, in forty books, of which only books i. — V, inch and xi.— xx. incl. have come down to us entire. The best editions are those of Wesseling (Bipont. 1793-1800; 10 vols. 8vo.) and DiNDORF (Parisiis, 1843-4; 2 vols. 8vo.). This work was a universal history from the earliest times down to B.C. 60.

PoLYBius, Htstori(P, likewise in forty books, of which the first five only are complete. Originally, a universal history of the period commencing B.C. 220 and terminating B.C. 146. Bad in style, but excellent in criticism and accuracy. The best edition is Schweigh^user's (Lips. 1789 et seqq. ; 8 vols. 8vo. Reprinted at Oxford, 1823, together with the same scholar's Lexicon Polybianum, in 5 vols. 8vo.). A good edition of the mere text has been published by Didot, Paris, 1859.

JUSTINUS, Historic^ Philippic (P, in forty-four books, extracted, or rather abbreviated, from Trogus Pompeius, a writer of the Augustan age. This is a universal history from the earliest times to Augustus Caesar. It is a short work, and consequently very slight and sketchy. Of recent editions, the best is that of DuEBNER, Lips. 1831. The best of the old editions is that of Strasburg, 1802, 8vo.

ZoNARAS, Chronicon sive Annates, in twelve books. A universal history, extending from the Creation to the death of the Emperor Maximin, a.d. 238. Greatly wanting in criticism. The best edition is that in the Corpus Scriptorum Historice Byzantince. Bonnee, 1841-4.

Besides these, there remain fragments from the universal history of Nico- LAUS Damascenus (Fragm. Hist. Grcec. vol. iii. ed. C. MtJLLER, Parisiis, 1849), which are of very considerable value.

Modern works embracing the whole range of ancient history are numerous and important. They may be divided into two classes : {a) Works on Universal History, of which Ancient History forms only a part- {h) Works exclusively devoted to Ancient History.-

(«) To the first class belong : —

The Universal History, Ancient ayid Modern, wjith maps and additions. London, 1736-44 ; 7 vols, folio. Reprinted in Svo. in 64 vols. London, 1747-66 ; again, in 60 vols., with omissions and additions.

Ralegh, Sir W., History of the World, in his Works. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1829; 8 vols. Svo.

BossuET, Discours sur I'Histoire Uni-verselle. Paris, 168 1 ; 4to. (Translated into English by Rich. Spencer. London, 1730; 8vo.)

MiLLOT, EUmens de VHistoire Generale. Paris, 1772 et seqq. Reprinted at Edinburgh, 1823 ; 6 vols. 8vo. (Translated into English, 1778 ; 2 vols. 8vo.)

Eichhorn, Weltgeschichte. Leipsic, 1799-1820; 5 vols. Svo.

Keightley, Th., Outlines of History, Svo., being vol. ix. of Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopaedia. London, 1S35 et seqq. A convenient abridgment.

TytleR and NarES, Elements of General History. London, 1825. 'Owes its reputation and success to the want of a better work on the subject.'

(-^) Under the second head may be mentioned: — Niebuhr, B. G., Fortrdge ijber alte Geschichte. Berlin, 1847; 3 vols. Svo. Edited after his death by his son, Marcus Niebuhr. (Translated into English by Dr. Leonhard Schmitz, with additions and corrections. London,

1852 ; 3 vols. 8vo.) A work of the highest value, embodying all the results of modern discovery up to about the year 1830.

SCHLOSSER, Uni'versal - historische Uebersicht der Geschichte der alien Welt. Frankfort, 1826; 3 vols. 8vo.

Bredov?, Handbuch der alte Geschichte. Altona, 1799; 8vo. (Translated into English. London, 1827; 8vo.)

Smith, Philip, An Ancient History from the Earliest Records to the Fall of the Western Empire. London, 1865 ; 3 vols. 8vo. Embodies the latest results of modern discovery.

HeerEN, Ideen uber die Politik, den Ferkehr, und den Handel der njornehmsten Volker der alten Welt ; 4th edition. Gottingen, 1824. (Translated into English. Oxford, 1833 et seqq.; 5 vols. 8vo.) A vi^ork which, so far as the commerce of the ancients is concerned, has not been superseded.

A few modern works of a less comprehensive character than those hitherto described, but still belonging rather to general than to particular history, seem also to deserve mention here. Such are —

ROLLIN, Histoire Ancienne des Egyptiens, des Carthaginiens, des Assyriens, des Mhdes et des Perses, des Macedoniens, et des Grecs. Paris, 1824; 12 vols. 8vo., revue par Letronne. ' The last and best edition.' (Translated into EngUsh. London, 1768 ; 7 vols. 8vo.) The earher portion of this work is now antiquated, and must be replaced by writers who have had the advantage of recent discoveries.

Rawlinson, G., 7he Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World, or the History, Geography, and Antiquities of Chaldma, Assyria, Babylonia, Media, and Persia. London, 1862-7 ; 4 vols. 8vo. With numerous illustrations.

9. The fact that all historical events must occur at a certain time and in a certain place attaches to History two branches of knowledge as indispensable auxiliaries ; viz. Chronology and Geography. By the universal historian these sciences should be known completely : and a fair knowledge of them ought to be acquired by every historical student. A fixed mode of computing time, and an exact or approximate reckoning of the period occupied by the events narrated, is essential to every methodised history ; nor can any history be regarded as complete without a more or less elaborate description of the countries which were the theatres of the events recorded in it.

10. Exact Chronology is difficult, and a synchronistic view of history generally is impossible, without the adoption of an era. Nations accordingly, as the desire of exactness or the wish to synchronise arose, invented eras for themselves_, which generally remained in use for many hundreds of years. The earliest-known instance of the formal assumption of a fixed point in time from which to date events belongs to the history of Babylon, where the era of Nabonassar, b.c. 747, appears to have been practically in use from that year. The era of the foundation of Rome, b.c. 75a

INTRODUCTION. 7

(according to the best authorities), was certainly not adopted by the Romans till after the expulsion of the kings ; nor did that of the Olympiads, b.c. 776, become current in Greece until the time of Timaeus (about B.C. 300). The Asiatic Greeks, soon after the death of Alexander, adopted the era of the Seleucidae, e.g. 312. The era of Antioch, b.c. 49, was also commonly used in the East from that date till a.d. 600. The Armenian era^ a.d. ^^'itt ^"^^ the Mahometan, a.d. 611 (the Hegira), are likewise worthy of notice. The most important chronological monuments are the following :—

The Assyrian Canon (discovered by Sir Henry Rawlinson, among the antiquities in the British Museum, and published by him in the Atheimum, Nos. 1812 and 2064), an account of Assyrian Chronology from about B.C. 909 to B.C. 680, impressed on a number of clay tablets in the reign of Sardanapalus, the son of Esarhaddon, all now more or less broken, but supplying each other's deficiencies, and yielding by careful comparison a complete chronological scheme, covering a space of 230 years. The chronology of the whole period is verified by a recorded solar eclipse, which is evidently that of June 15, B.C. 763.

The Apis Stelae (discovered by M. Mariette, close to the Pyramid of Abooseer, near Cairo), published in the Zeitschrift fur die Kunde des Morgenlandes for 1864, and also by M. DE RouGE in his Recherches sur les monuments qu^on peut attribuer aux six premieres Dynasties de Manethon. Paris, 1866. Most important for Egyptian Chronology.

The Parian Marble (brought to England from Smyrna in the year 1627 by an agent of the Earl of Arundel, and presented to the University of Oxford by his son; preserved among the 'Arundel Marbles' in the Schola Philosophice Mora/is, but in a very decayed condition), a chronological arrangement of important events in Greek history from the accession of Cecrops to the archonship of Callistratus, B.C. 355. Best editions: Marmora Arundeliana, ed. J. Selden. Londini, 1628. Marmora Oxoniensia, ed. R. Chandler. Oxoniis, 1763 ; folio. Marmor Parium,, ed. C. MtJLLER, in vol. i. of the Fragmenta Historicorum Grcecorum. Parisiis, 1846. The inscription is also given in Boeckh's Corpus Inscriptionum GrcBcarum, vol. ii. No. 2374.

The Fasti Capitolini (discovered at Rome on the site of the ancient Forum, partly in the year 1547, partly in 1817 and 1818, and still preserved in the Museum of the Capitol), a list of the Roman magistrates and triumphs from the commencement of the Republic to the end of the reign of Augustus. Best edition of the fragments discovered in 1547, the second of Sigonius, Venet. 1556, Best edition of the fragments of 1817-8, that of Borghesi, Milan, 18 18. These Fasti are reproduced in appendices to the first and second volumes of Dr. Arnold's History of Rome, down to the close of the first Punic War. An excellent reprint and arrangement of the fragments will be found in Mommsen's Inscriptiones Latince Antiquissimce. Berlin, 1863.