Literary Influence in British History

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Prefatory Note

THE influence of public speakers is perhaps more apparent than that of poets, historians, and novelists. Yet these latter are shown by recent experience, especially in Britain, to have greater influence in legislation and on public opinion than is usually believed. In this republished and revised volume I endeavour to trace the influence of literature in British history, with the hope that the book may be of use to readers not familiar with larger works on the subject.

A. S. G. CANNING.

London, 1904.

Contents

CHAPTER PAOB

I. Literary Influences of Judea, Greece, and

Rome . . . . . i

Chapter I Literary Influences Of Judea, Greece, And Rome

IN examining literary history, Judea, Greece, and Rome seem pre-eminent for almost exclusive influence on modern European civilisation. Greek and Roman literature are historically connected, and Greece, the first in intellectual achievement, fell under the dominion of Rome. The religions of both were almost the same, while Roman conquest, comprising all western Europe, bore with it the treasures of Greek learning, combined with its own civilising, enlightened influence. France, Spain, England, and Germany, destined to become the greatest nations in the world, alike submitted to Roman arms, and with their submission disappeared their ancient religions, and most of their historic traditions. Roman or Latin literature, history, legislation, language, and ideas, comprising much that was borrowed from Greece, gradually prevailed throughout Europe.^

The most celebrated countries whose ancient histories were long comparatively unknown, were Assyria, Persia, and Egypt. Except from occasional allusions to them in the Jewish Scriptures, their histories were long concealed, though to some extent preserved in the literature of ancient Greece. The poets and historians of that intellectual country are still among modern Europeans, not only the studies of the young, but attract statesmen, travellers, theologians, and even novelists, in their translation or examination.

The Jews, amid the general idolatry, polytheism, and mystical worship of the ancient world, transmitted through generations their ancient Deism utterly unchanged by the progress of time. Absorbed in their own thoughts, interests, privileges, and local history, this isolated race stood apart from the rest of the world, showing little interest in other races of men. 2 This indifference was equalled by the indifference of other nations towards them. Modern

« "Victorious Rome was herself subdued by the arts of Greece. Those immortal writers who still command the admiration of modem Europe soon became the favourite object of study and imitation in Italy. The love of letters was fashionable among the subjects of Hadrian and the Antonines. It was diffused over the whole extent of their empire, the most northern tribes of Britons had acquired a taste for rhetoric. Homer as well as Virgil were transcribed and studied on the banks of the Rhine and Danube." — Gibbon's *' Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," Chapter 11.

» Milman's " Histories of the Jews arid of Christianity."

historians express wonder at the ignorance of both Greeks and Romans about the literature of the Jews.'

The Romans inherited not only the religion and territory, but the literature, and to some extent the arts, of Greece. Athens was the admiration of her Roman conquerors, while Judea remained apparently excluded from the curiosity, learning, and enterprise of the ancient world, which it was yet destined to overcome in religious interest, importance, and conversion. The Romans by their rule over Assyria, Greece, Egypt, and Judea acquired all the revealed knowledge and learning of the ancient world, while their conquests, travels, and inquiries extended their influence throughout countries previously unknown.

Their vast empire thus included the most fertile parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa, in addition to the dominion of their Greek predecessors. Throughout this grand empire the brilliant Roman intellect reigned supreme. It appeared alike in legal enactment, geographical examination, historical inquiry, and practical improvement in almost everything connected with human welfare. ^

The rise of Christianity and its complete conquest of Roman Paganism, mingled the three nations of Greeks, Romans, and Jews in complete intellectual supremacy over the educated world, while the Christians, extinguishing Paganism throughout its former

* Macaulay's " Essay on History."

» " The firm edifice of Roman power was raised and preserved by the wisdom of ages. The general principle of government was wise, simple, and beneficent." — ** Decline and Fall," Cb. II.

political dominion, yet cultivated and studied its splendid literature with increasing admiration. From this combination of Christian knowledge with the classic elegance, learning, and genius of Greece and Rome, arose the mediaeval and modern literature of Europe.

European Christians, when triumphant over the Roman Empire, had thus the literature of Greece and Rome with that of Judea at their command for study, comparison, and instruction. So vast an amount of history, poetry, tradition, and philosophy gave immense and unequalled information to Christian minds. The learning and wisdom of both Greeks and Romans and the religious history of the Jews were for the first time combined throughout Europe for Christian instruction.

English literature is called by an eminent contributor to it "the most splendid and the most durable of the many glories of England." ' Its excellence is due partly indeed to cultivation of classic literary models, and also to vast information derived through foreign conquest, travel, and communication. When the results of persevering, uninterrupted study at home are added to those of research and exploration abroad, English literary acquisitions appear unrivalled.

England for many centuries never 'lay ** at the proud foot of a conqueror." ^ While her domestic peace has been for many years less disturbed than

"^ Macaulay's "History of England," Vol. ist. « Shakespeare's " King John."

that of most European nations, her vast conquered territories, unlike those of Spain and Portugal, mostly obey her rule. The great facilities, inducements, and rewards thereby offered to enterprising travellers enable them by antiquarian, scientific, or scholastic researches, as well as by military and naval triumphs, to enrich fellow-countrymen in almost every department of human knowledge. The vast discoveries made by British travellers in lands unknown to the ancient world have, in London especially, been added to the grand inheritance of classic learning, which centuries of domestic peace enable England to enjoy in intellectual security. .) Macaulay's expression about the durability of English literature indicates that being founded alike on classic learning and the Jewish Scriptures, it has through centuries derived aid, addition, and enlightenment from the efforts of geographers, the voyages of travellers, the researches and studies of antiquaries and scholars, and even from the results of military conquest. England's insular position, her complete independence of foreign influence, her maritime ascendancy over the classic Mediterranean, and all those newly discovered oceans which separated the new world from the old, her retained supremacy over all conquests and colonies except the United States of America, all these practical and peculiar advantages to her political power, have in various ways confirmed her intellectual greatness.

In many early specimens of British literature the Roman Catholic influence which then comprised all the Christianity of western Europe is very apparent.' Legends, traditions, anecdotes, as well as writings of Christian saints and martyrs, were generally studied and often implicitly believed. The Church "the Roman Empire over again " ^ united some amount of Pagan civilisation, history, and art with the Christian doctrine, communicated from Judea to her Roman sovereign.3 The learning, knowledge, and wisdom of ancient Rome were thus historically connected with the first authentic version of Christianity.

Rome, the political ruler of Athens, Constantinople, and Jerusalem, became in every sense the head and centre of intellectual supremacy. The complete extinction of Paganism throughout the Roman Empire enabled its Christian successor to admire and preserve its noble literature without the least fear of thereby restoring its religious ideas. Christianity seems to have replaced the faith of Jupiter more rapidly than it effaced the old religion of northern and western Europe.

* " Even the spiritual supremacy arrogated by the Pope was in the dark ages productive of far more good than evil. Its effect was to unite the nations of western Europe in one great commonwealth. Learning followed in the train of Christianity." — Macaulay's " History of England," Vol. ist.

* Dean Milman's " History of Christianity."

3 "The Church has many times been compared by divines to the Ark of which we read in the Book of Genesis, but never was the resemblance more perfect than during that evil time when she alone rode amidst the darkness and tempest on the deluge beneath which all the great works of ancient power lay entombed, bearing within her that feeble germ from which a second and more glorious civilisation was to spring." — Macaulay's " History of England," Vol. ist.

I

Many years after Christian supremacy, there remained a belief in fairies and witchcraft, apparently connected with the ancient worship, yet which lingered even in some learned minds during centuries of established Christianity. But Paganism evidently vanished from the hearts and minds of all the inhabitants of the Roman Empire, and seems never to have revived even in remote districts.

Christianity throughout that vast dominion became not only supreme but popular. The ignorant as well as the comparatively learned embraced it with an earnest enthusiasm which the previous fanciful Paganism had probably never aroused. Hence the most devout early Christians studied, preserved, and transmitted Pagan literature to a Christian posterity, while either effacing or neglecting all traces of the ancient faith of northern Europe.

Greek and Roman literature, carefully preserved by Christian monks, together with the Scripture history and a few local traditions, for centuries comprised nearly all the literary knowledge of Great Britain.^

The indignation against Jews which the New Testament for centuries excited among Christians practically destroyed that admiration for them which the Old Testament was calculated to arouse. While some learned Christians admired David's psalms, and respected Abraham and Moses, their Jewish descen-

' '' Nothing in the early existence of Britain indicated the greatiiess which she was destined to attain. She was subjugated by the Koman arms, but she. received only a faint tincture of Roman arts and letters." — Macaulay's " History," Vol. ist dants and co-religionists were much more associated in most Christian minds with the rigid priests, Annas and Caiaphas, executing the founder of Christianity for the sake of preserving their ancient Deism, which they accused Him of deserting. ^ Thence arose hatred and persecution of the Jews in Christian countries, where yet praises of Moses, Abraham, and David were uttered alike by Christian and Jewish clergy.

As Roman civilisation spread chiefly westward, the partially verified works of classic historians, geographers, poets, and philosophers were soon preferred by all intelligent British minds to the vague, mysterious, practically useless legends of their own country, which apparently lingered longest in the Highlands of Scotland. ^

These traditions, however, though perhaps partly true, being unsupported by historical proof, political authority, or literary vindication, became almost fabulous through time. Shakespeare and Scott mention some of them in their works, but merely in interesting plays, poems, or romances, not as historical facts. 3

Legends of Christian saints and martyrs, stories of witchcraft, fairy tales, and poetical praises of the Crusades gradually extended British literary know-

' Hallam's "Middle Ages"; also Dean Milman's "History of Latin Christianity."

» Gibbon's remarks on " Ossian's Poems," " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," Vol. ist.

3 Shakespeare's " King Lear " and " Cymbeline," Scott's historical novels, and " Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border."

ledge. The Crusades united real warfare with the charms of music and poetry, and were melodiously advocated by foreign minstrels, as well as eagerly sanctioned by the Christian clergy. The influence of the former over some European kings, especially Richard I. of England, is historically recorded, and apparently not exaggerated in Scott's novels, "The Talisman," and "Ivanhoe."

During the reigns of the first Norman Kings of England, literature was only cultivated by "the clergy and the minstrels." ^ These classes, usually inspired by different motives, ideas, and thoughts, yet united during early English history in devoting all the literary influence of their period in favour of the Crusades.

To inspire admiration for this alleged holy warfare, religious fervour, music, and poetry were alike invoked. The clergy promised the blessing and approval of the Deity, the poets promised earthly fame, glory, and renown, as rewards of these desperate, yet heroic enterprises. The Pagan religion was extinct, the Jewish Deism survived, believed in, perhaps, by as many millions as ever, though scattered among different nations. They doubtless watched with feelings they dared not express the strange warfare chiefly caused by the influence of religious and poetical literature, waged in their ancestral land by Christians and Mohammedans, who knowing Jewish history alike condemned the execution of the Christian prophet.

' T. Arnold's " Manual of English literature."

lo Literary Influence

During the Middle Ages, Rome and Constantinople, inheriting in different degrees the glory and intellect of a fallen Pagan empire, became the seats of the two chief religions in the world. The Papacy established at Rome directed for centuries not only Christian thought, but in great measure regulated its political policy. Though the Arabian city of Mecca was specially sacred in Mohammedan belief as the birthplace of the Prophet, yet Mohammed II., the captor of Constantinople, claimed, to some extent, the religious veneration as well as the political obedience of the Mohammedan majority in Europe, Asia, and Africa.

Christianity and Mohammedanism, comprising between them all Europe, northern Africa, and western Asia, seemed at one time almost rivals in political power. But this competition gradually ceased. The latter declined steadily in political influence without any revival, while Christian nations increased rapidly in both martial and intellectual supremacy. The triumphant Christians, having completely supplanted Paganism and no longer dreading Mohammedanism as a political foe, began in a calmer spirit to study, translate, and appreciate the noble literature bequeathed by classic writers.

Apparently while recollection or dread of Pagan tyranny still remained such study was either neglected or distasteful, but when all danger of persecution disappeared, the splendid literature and even the singular religion of Greece and Rome were studied in British History ii

by Christian readers with eager admiration and scholastic interest.

The divisions among Christians through the rise of Protestantism in western Europe favoured rather than hindered the study of classic authors. Opposing Christians, viewing each other with more hostility than ever, for the previous separation of the Greek Church from Rome caused far less strife, ^ were probably the more favourable to Pagan genius, which aroused neither prejudice nor apprehension. All fear of its religious revival vanished with its political power. Accordingly, classic poetry and philosophy, as well as history, became the established study of accomplished Christian youths throughout Europe.

All the vast Roman Empire, together with many lands never under its mighty sway, became either Christiaii or Mohammedan. Judaism and Parseeism, the two most ancient of all religions, were established in no country. Their subjected votaries could hardly obtain toleration under Christian or Mohammedan rule, the ancient faith of Buddhism remained throughout the middle and east of Asia, unexamined and stationary for ages, while ardent Christians and Mohammedans were making converts in all civilised parts of the known world. Yet while Christianity was at the height of political power and prosperity, having replaced Paganism, defeated or checked Mohammedanism, and politically triumphed over all opposing religions, the rise of Protestantism arrayed

» Dean Stanley's " Eastern Church."

Christians fiercely against each other throughout the most civilised countries of Europe.

About the time of this great event in Christian history, the discovery and conquest of America were solely effected by European Christians. Neither Asia nor Africa took part in these achievements, which were alike entirely due to European genius, learning, and enterprise. While, however, the new world presented a splendid scene of action and discovery to the energetic nations of Europe, it afforded little information to the antiquarian, historian, or theologian.

The subsequent discoveries and explorations in Australasia, South Africa, and other lands unknown to the Romans likewise added little to historical information. Naturalists, botanists, and travellers were indeed richly rewarded and gratified by the productions of these hitherto unknown countries. New birds, animals, plants, trees, vegetables and flowers, alike unknown to Aristotle, Pliny, and Columella, were brought to Europe in abundance from these newly-discovered regions. Yet for historical knowledge, and sacred tradition, the old civilised world, once almost comprised in the vast Roman Empire, remains unapproached either in historic interest or religious veneration.

Chapter II Early British Writings

THE dawn of literature among the first Christian nations decidedly favoured the glories of war rather than the blessings of peace. Historical students, moreover, must perceive that bigoted cruelty to enemies so prevalent during the Crusades, remained for many centuries firmly legalised throughout Great Britain and Christian Europe generally.

While Christian clergy preached a merciful faith, neither Christian kings, statesmen, nor even theologians, with few exceptions, acknowledged the duty of its practical adoption. The cruel enactments in Christian legislation, quite as much as the violence of kings, the vindictiveness of statesmen, or the ferocity of warriors, amply prove that merciful principles were denied in legal theory as well as in political acts.^ Hence, historical personages are usually blamed by a comparatively humane posterity for deeds of cruelty, as if they alone were responsible for them. But it

» Hallam's "Constitutional History of England;" also Sir G. C. Lewis's "Influence of Authority in Matters of Opinion.** will be often found that the most tyrannical kings or judges merely enforced the laws existing at their period with the consent, if not approval, of the community, and enacted by their predecessors.

In English history Shakespeare often illustrates this fact in the historical plays. If these dramatic chronicles, as Hallam calls them, are compared with his own histories, as well as with those of Hume, Lingard, and Macaulay, it will be seen how truly the poet describes many noble, historic personages committing or authorising legal cruelties, for which they cannot be considered personally responsible.

Among the first English authors who influenced public opinion were Francis Bacon, Sir Walter Raleigh, Edmund Spenser, and Shakespeare. Of these the last has surpassed all cotemporaries in lasting esteem, value, and popularity. The previous writings and thoughts of Chaucer and Wickliffe, and the yet earlier works of the monk Caedmon and the venerable Bede, had comparatively slight influence in political history.'

It appears from the admissions of learned English writers that from the earliest Christian monasteries in Ireland there came students of comparative learning.^ Yet they, like the early British writers, apparently strove rather to maintain or restore classic literature than to examine or elucidate the historical legends of their own country.

I << Bede wrote all his extant works in Latin. The most notable is his * Church History of the English Nation.' " — Arnold's " Manual of English Literature."

» Hallam's "Literary History of Europe," Vol. ist e in British History 15

jj. ■ Doubtless the knowledge of Latin and of classic

Ij. , times formed a most useful bond of union among the

g Christian clergy, who, taking their orders and spiritual

directions from Rome,' had no wish or motive to

5 revive heathen legends or superstitions, but, on the

contrary, rather desired to discourage curiosity or

knowledge about them.^

The subsequent invention of printing, so wonderful in itself, and so full of great results, while it reproduced with impressive splendour the grand literature of Greece and Rome throughout England, did little to restore or elucidate the legendary histories or traditions of Great Britain and Ireland. They have always remained in comparative, almost hopeless, obscurity, save when occasionally referred to by writers of fiction.

The classic writings, like the Jewish Scriptures, were eagerly studied in their printed revivals by statesmen, philosophers, and theologians. Thus Bacon, Raleigh, Shakespeare, &c., often mention classic and Jewish writings, founding thereon most of their religious and political knowledge, while seldom

» " In 596 St. Augustine, sent by Pope Gregory the Great, brought the faith to the Anglo-Saxon tribes, and the moral ferment which the introduction of this new spiritual element occasioned induced also such intellectual exertion as the times permitted, and as the partial communication by the missionaries of the literature of the ancient world tended to enkindle and sustain." — Arnold's "Manual of English Literature."

3 << Every one that has perused the ancient monkish writers knows that they are full of allusions to the Latin poets." — Hume's " History of England," Vol. 3rd.

mentioning the ancient history of their own country, except in fanciful allusion.

The old English ballads mostly celebrating deeds of arms, and which Hallam thinks inferior to the Scottish,^ were comparatively neglected till the i8th century when republished by Bishop Percy. Although admired by some literary men, Walter Scott especially, they were seldom referred to by former British writers.

The poet Chaucer (i 328-1400), who, from social position, was, perhaps, one of the first literary men known at the English Court, lived in the troubled reign of the luckless Richard II. He was probably opposed to that king, being in high favour with John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, whose illustrious son, afterwards Henry IV., supplanted Richard on the throne. Yet Chaucer, though living in such an excited political period, seems not to have written about public affairs.2 The time for literary influence in English politics was yet distant, and the poet's writings during a period of civil war seem to cautiously avoid political allusion.

His religious cotemporary, John Wickliffe (1324- 1384), likewise, whose translation of the Bible was disapproved by the chief politicians, as well as theologians of his time,3 while preparing the English mind for future changes in Christian doctrine, had apparently no political influence.4

* " History of Literature," Vol. and.

* T. Arnold's remarks on a list of Chaucer's works. — "Manual of English Literature."

3 Hallam's "Literary History," Vol. ist. 4 Hume's " History."

Among the achievements of the first printer, Caxton, in Edward IV. *s reign, few, if any, works on religion were published,^ though the previous efforts of Wickliffe, like Chaucer in his Canterbury Tales, specially addressed Churchmen, then the chief if not the only patrons of learning in Great Britain and Ireland.

While among the early English kings, literary praises of chivalry evidently inspired Richard I. and others,^ the first results of Caxton's work were made known to Edward IV. and his murderous brother, Richard III. During the latter's short, terrific reign there was indeed little time or inclination for literary study, though Richard favoured the cause of learning, which his troubled career and odious character prevented his doing much to promote. Shakespeare, no friend to Richard's memory, makes him reveal his knowledge of classic literature in soliloquy, mentioning the oratory of Nestor, the craft of Ulysses, the art of Sinon,3 &c.

It is remarkable that in literary allusions throughout Shakespeare's plays there is scarcely any reference to ancient English history. Nearly all literary allusion mentions Greek or Roman times and men as models and studies of Englishmen to the exclusion of remote English ancestry.

In the reign of Richard III.'s shrewd successor, Henry VII., literary influence made little progress in

' Hallam's " Literary History of Europe." • Hume's " History of England." 3 See 3rd part of " Henry VI."

England, I but in the far more eventful reign of his son, Henry VIII., its influence, power, and progress were greater than ever in English history. The young king himself set an example of literary work, by writing an essay against the new Protestant doctrine, of which he was fated to become the political champion and supporter. The aid of literature was eagerly sought in England during this reign by advocates both of the old and new religious doctrines.

In Scotland, King James III., cotemporary of Henry VII., encouraged literature more than the latter did in England.^ Classic works were occasionally cultivated in Scotland about this time by some of its nobility whom Scott's novels describe with admiration.3

But in England literary genius, effort, and progress were unprecedented in Henry VIII.'s time. Statesmen, theologians, nobles, poets, and philosophers alike displayed literary activity during his reign. The king,

' Green's "History of the English People," also Hallam's " Literary History." » CasselPs " History of England."

3 Bishop Gawain Douglas, son of the Earl of Angus, translated Virgil, perhaps without his martial father's approval. Scott makes the old Earl exclaim, probably representing many of his class at the time —

"Thanks to Saint Bothan, son of mine Save Gawain ne'er could pen a line, So swore I, and I swear it still, Let my boy Bishop fret his fill."

" Marmion," Canto VL representing, in his unrivalled self, the united Houses of York and Lancaster, was never disturbed by civil war. He surrounded himself, and was previously surrounded by the care of his wise father, with a succession of most able statesmen, ministers, and advisers.

Among these, Cardinal Wolsey was at first pre-eminent. Although an ambitious Churchman, desiring to obtain the Papacy, he was always a steady, liberal patron of literature. His ambitious energy was, however, constantly involved with the dangerous state intrigues of a troubled reign. While he generously promoted the progress of learning in England, he was always an active politician, as well as a most energetic man of business. ^ Yet his political fall, soon followed by his death, was unaccompanied by popular sympathy. The king's special favourite originally, he therefore had few or no friends according to the proverbial fate of favourites. He was envied by the nobility, and

^ Green's " History of the English People,'* where the historia praises Wolsey's "enormous capacity for toil." Shakespeare's description of him in "Henry VIII." seems also confirmed by different historians. See Lingard's and Hume's Histories; also Froude's "Reign of Henry VIII."

" He was a scholar, and a ripe and good one. . . . Ever witness for him.

Those twins of learning, Ipswich and Oxford ! One of which fell with him, Unwilling to outlive the good that rear'd it The other, though unfinished, yet so famous, So excellent in art, and still so rising. That Christendom shall ever speak his virtue."

apparently not beloved by either the clergy or people generally.

It was long after his time, when suspicious politicians or jealous ecclesiastics had ceased to fear or envy him, that his extraordinary merits were fully revealed to his fellow-countrymen.

Throughout Henry VIII/s agitated, dangerous reign the great talents and efforts of many English literary men were ignored, opposed, or suppressed by political intrigue and regal despotism, perhaps even more than by popular ignorance or prejudice.

Chapter III The House Of Tudor

ALTHOUGH when the Act of Magna Charta was wrung from King John by an indignant nobility all regal tyranny was thought to be either prevented or considerably checked, yet Henry VHI/s conduct was often as arbitrary as that of any previous English sovereign. Evidently, however, this monarch, possessing a shrewdness, if not self-control, rarely combined with violent passions, always contrived to tyrannise over those in his power, and to prudently avoid all collision with others who might have defied it.'

He was far more implacable towards the nobility and statesmen, among whom, however, were some of the most learned men of the time, than he dared to be towards the lower classes. Hence his comparative popularity among the latter, despite conduct usually found incompatible with that coveted gift.

» See Macaulay's remarks on Henry's tyranny towards the nobility, and his submission or adhesion to the popular will. — '* History of England," Vol. ist, Ch. I.

It was England's fate to see some of her most learned men either executed, imprisoned, disgraced, or influenced by this fierce and practically most successful despot.

Unlike the nervous King John, or the desperate Richard III., Henry, while committing perhaps as many deliberate cruelties as either of them, by shrewdly following the spirit of his times, contrived to preserve popularity to the end of his terrible reign. Yet under his rule, two executed and two divorced queens, the executions of Lady Salisbury, Buckingham, and others, the premature death of Wolsey, broken-hearted by the king's harshness, and the execution of Sir Thomas More, alike prove Henry's implacable temper and almost absolute power.

Sir T. More, Wolsey 's successor in the Chancellorship, showed, even in youth, a great taste for literature. This inclination was remarked by the celebrated writer Erasmus, who, fortunately for the learned world, was no subject of Henry VIII. Both he and Luther about this time engaged the earnest attention of most thoughtful minds in western Europe by their theological views. Although each favoured the Reformation, they differed seriously from one another. ^

More was a sincere Catholic, and his opinions were for some time shared by his royal master. But on Henry's conversion or inclination to Protestantism,

» Hallam's " Literary History," Vol. ist.

More refused to own the king's religious supremacy as head of the English Church, and his refusal being thought equivalent to treason, he was executed,^ In his fanciful book, "The Utopia," this luckless statesman apparently sought relief from the troubles of public life in a world of imagination. Nothing in it denoted revolutionary intentions. None of his works were very popular, or much known in England, being only appreciated by a few learned men. The irritated king therefore decided on More's execution, without incurring popular anger, while gratifying his temper and vindicating his new assumptions.