Human histology in its relations to descriptive anatomy, physiology, and pathology. With four hundred and thirty-four illustrations on wood

Front matter

1 '.

:E3ii

Columbia (Mnitiet^ftp

Preface

The plan of the following work was formed nine years ago; since which time the author's annual courses of lectures have been arranged in accordance with it. Meantime several works have appeared in Germany, France, and England, upon the subjects embraced in it ; but no one including its entire aim, viz : —

I. To give a connected view of the simple chemical elements^ of the

immediate j^nnciples, the simple structural elements, and the proper tissues, entering into the composition of the fluids and the solids of the human hody.

II. To associate with the structural elements and the tissues, their

function ivhile in health, and the changes they undergo in disease.

In the prosecution of his object, the author has drawn more especially upon the work of Eobin and Yerdeil in the first part; that of Lehmann in the division including the fluids; aad on Kolliker's excellent work in the part on the tissues proper. He has not hesitated, indeed, sometimes to use the language of the latter, when sufficiently concise. He has not, however, embarrassed the text by references to the various authorities whence materials have been derived ; except in instances where views varying from those of previous writers are advanced, as being, in the authors judgment, the most satisfactory at the present time.

In regard to the dimensions of the minute structural elements, Kolliker has been more especially relied upon. And as this work is intended especially for those who use the English language, they are given in fractions of an inch, instead of a millimetre, or a Paris line, as has usually been done by translators of German and French works, both in England and in this country.

VI PREFACE.

An experience of sixteen years as a public teacher of anatomy, physiology, and surgery, has confirmed the author's conviction that the only rational method of imparting a knowledge o1 function is by associating with the latter all that is known of the forms and relations of the structural elements, and of their chemical composition, in each part and organ. Pathological anatomy, moreover, and therefore pathology, can be rationally understood only as we take the same point of departure. As the student should, however, study the last mentioned departments after acquiring a knowledge of the healthy structure and functions, the pathological conditions of the tissues are, in the present volume, specified in closer type ; as intended to be more especially studied on a second reading of the work. The same remark also applies to the parts which concern the structure of the lower animals.

Some typographical errors, overlooked in the pressure of other professional occupations, will be corrected at once by the intelligent reader; excepting, perhaps, those referred to at the end of the volume. Some portions compiled for it, relating to pathological and comparative histology, have also been omitted, to avoid rendering it formidable, from its size, to medical students; to whom, and to the profession, it is submitted as the first American work on the subjects of which it treats.

New York, October, 1857.

TAELE or CONTENTS.

PAGE

Part I. Stcechiology

FIRST DIVISION.

Toe simple chemical elements entering into the stkcctdee of the human

BODY (15 in number) PRACTICAL REMARKS ....

SECOND DIVISION.

The immediate principles of which the tissues of the human body are

Classification of the immediate principles . . . .39

Tabular arrangement of " " . . . .40

List of otlier substances sometimes regarded as immediate principles . 41

1st group of IMMEDIATE PRINCIPLES.

Class Fh'st.

IMMEDIATE PRINCIPLES OF MIXEEAL ORTrtiN,

Division £. Gaseous, or liquid principles, au.l those not saline (5)

2. Hydrogen . . . . ,

3. Nitrogen .....

4. Carbonic acid .....

5. Water, its amount, source, and use in the body

Division II. The saline principles (salts, 19)

General remarks ......

1. Chloride of sodium ....

2. Chloride of potassium ....

43 43 43 44 44 45

47 47 49 50

Table Of Contents

PAGE

3. Fluoride of calcium ••.... 51

4. Hydrochlorate of ammonia . . . . .51

Chapter IV. Cytology

Elements of the cell. 1. The cell-wall ; 2. Tlie contained fluid ; 3. The granules ; 4. The nucleus. How affected by acetic acid — Free nuclei — Pathological developments of nuclei. 1. Tubercle, its chemical analysis ; 2. The glomerulus, or exudation-corpuscle. 5. The nucleolus ; not necessarily developed from fibrine, the latter not being the only plastic element of the blood ....... 114

Cytogeny, or development of cells. I. Free cell-development ; described. II. From pre-existing cells. A. Endogenous cell-development, b. Development of cells by division — Physiology of cells: 1. Their growth;

2. The nature of the contents of cells ; 3. Functions of cells — absorption, secretion, and contraction ...... 120

Pathological changes in cells. 1. Fatty degeneration; 2. Pigmentary do. ;

3. Dropsy ; 4. Crystalline deposits ; 5. Atrophy . . .129 The primordial cells. Schwann's discovery ..... 130

Isolated Cells. — I. Pigment cells. — Their strnoturc — Distribution in the Negro, and the Albino — Freckles — Peculiar forms of pigment cells, in the

TABLE OF CONTENTS. XI

PACK

choroid, sclerotica, &c. — Their distribution in the lower animals — Color of the hair and eyes — Pigment in sebaceous glands of the skin — Development of pigment cells ; efl'ects of solar light upon — Functions of pigment cells — Regeneration of do. ..... 131

Pathological formations of i)igment cells — 'Melanosis, ephelis, moles, &c. . 136

II. Cancer cells. — Forms of cancer — Cancer nuclei — Their nucleoli — Six forms of cancer cells. 1. Polygonal; 2. Caudated ; 3. Fusiform; 4. Concentric; 5. Compound or mother cell ; 6. Agglomerated cell . 137

Elements liable to be mistaken for cancer. 1. Corpuscles of fibro-plastic tissue ; 2. Fibro-plastic cells ; 3. Enchondromatous tumors ; 4. Pus-corpuscles ; 5. Tubercle-cori)uscles ; 6. Epithelial cells . . 142

The value of the microscope in the diagnosis of cancer . . . 143

SECOND DIYISION.

HYGROLOGY.— THE FLUIDS OF THE HUMAN BODY.

Cytoid corpuscles common to several of the fluids — Description of — Their

chemical reactions — Development — Functions of cytoid corpuscles . 145

CHAPTER I . HISTOLOGICAL RELATIONS OF THE BLOOD. (^Lymph and Chyle.)

I. Lymph. — 1. The liquor lymphs. 2. Its histological elements — Its origin

II. Chyle. — 1. The liquor chyli. 2. Its histological elements. Its quan-

tity— Origin — Uses ....... 149

HI. The Blood. — Its physical properties — Its coagulation — The liquor sanguinis, and the blood-corpuscle ...... 151

1. The liquor sanguinis. — Chemical analysis — Its fibrine — Water — Albumen — Fat — Glucose — Other organic constituents — Mineral constituents ; chloride of sodium and potassium, carbonate of ammonia, etc. — Origin of the liquor sanguinis — Uses of its different elements — Filjiine not the only plastic element of the blood — Albumen is so likewise — The latter is probably the plastic element of the blood — What then are the uses of fibrine . . 152

2. The blood-corpuscles.

A. The colorless corpuscles. — Their cell-membrane — Their con-

tents— Their size and origin — Uses — Vitality of the blood

due to them, the fibrine, and the red corpuscles . .159

B. The colored corpuscles. — Their size — Do. in the lower animals

— Chemical analysis of do. — Cell-membrane — Contents — " Fibrinous flakes" — Tendency to sink, of the corpuscles — Their color as changed by difi'erent agents and circumstances— Amount of corpuscles in the blood — Their number— Analysis of the blood as a whole — Origin of the red corpuscles from the white — Function of red corpuscles — Duration of their existence . . . .162

XU TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Quantity of blood in tlie human body . . . 172

Variety in composition of the blood in different physiological conditions ; sex, pregnancy, age, during digestion, &c. — Do. in the lower animals — Difl'erent composition of the blood in different vessels : 1. Arteries and veins; 2. Portal vein ; 3. Hepatic vein ; 4. Placental vessels ; 5. Veins of extremities ; 6. Menstrual blood . . . 173

Pathological states of blood — in inflammation ; fevers ; cholera ; dysentery ; acute exanthemata ; puerperal fever ; Bright's disease ; plethora ; ausemia ; chlorosis ; leucaemia ; pyiemia ; carcinoma ; diabetes ; etherization— Diseases iu which each of the elements of the blood is increased or diminished ........ 170

Chapter II. Serous Secretions, And Transudations

Distinction between secretion, transudation, and exudation . . . 179

1. The serous secretions. — Distinguished from others so called — Their

normal quantity — Origin — Uses ..... 180

2. Transudations. — Enumeration of — Pathological do. — Transudation

results from a physical necessity in certain circumstances — Explain them — Resemble blood-serum in chemical composition — Quantity of albumen in ; do. of salts ; do. fibrine — Fat in them ; bile pigment, urea, &c. — Quantity of Transudations — Uses . 181

3. Exudations. — Definition of an exudation — How differing from transu-

dation— Contain i.o histological elements at first — Their origin —

Varieties of exudations — Changes occurring in them ; absorption, organization, and suppuration — Circumstances determining between organization and suppuration of exudations . . . 186

Origin and character of jius. — 1. Pus-serum ; 2. Pus-corpuscles; nuclei and contents of the latter — How long a time necessary for the formation of pus — Character of true pus. — " Sterile" cells — Uses of pus — Suppuration a destructive process — When desirable . . 189

Section First. — Mucus

Mucus secreted by epithelial cells alone — The membrane, as such, having

no special function — Mucus varies in composition . . . 194

1. Liquor Muci. — 2. Mucus corpuscles, so called . . 196

Quantity secreted by mucous membranes . • 197

Uses of mucus ...... 198

Three varieties of mucus . . . . .198

Relations of synovia to mucus .... 198

The gastric fluid. — Description — Chemical composition — Pcjisin —Acids of

the gastric juice — Its origin — Quantity iu twenty-four houid — Uses . 198

TABLE OF CONTENTS. Xill

I'a<;k Intestinal fluid. — Description — Morphological elements — Fluid constituents —

its quantity — Origin — Uses ...... 200

Section Second. — The Glandular Secretions

I. Milk. — Description — Colostrum — Milk-globules — Analysis of its fluid

portion — Circumstances aifecting the amount of caseine — of sugar — of salts and of fat — Quantity in twenty-four hours — Origin — Uses of milk — Milk of lower animals ..... 202

II. jSejnew.— Description ; 1. Liquor seminis ; 2. Spermatozoids — Semi-

nal granules — Recognition of semen — Origin — Uses . . 206

III. Glandular Secretions discharged into the Alimentary Canal.

1. Saliva. — Description — Its characters as obtained from the dif-

ferent glands — Origin — Uses — Does not normally convert starch into sugar ...... 209

2. Bile. — Its properties, chemical analysis, organic constituents,

mineral constituents — Biliary concretions — Its amount — Origin

— Fourfold function of the bile .... 210

3. Pancreatic fluid. — Description — Its chemical analysis — Pan-

creatine— Quantity in twenty-four hours — Origin and uses . 213

4. Urine. — Description — Normal morphological elements — abnor-

mal elements — Chemical analysis — Urea, uric acid, creatine, and creatinine ; its mineral constituents — Substances passing unaltered into the urine — Abnormal organic constituents of urine — Sugar normally in it during pregnancy — Quantity of urine in twenty- four hours — Its origin and uses . .214

Urinary deposits, list of — Urinary concretions, table of —

Uric acid most frequently their nucleus . . 222

5. Lachrymal fluid. — Description — Origin — Uses . - . 225

Chapter IV. The Cutaneous Secretions

I, Sebaceous secretions. — Not all precisely identical — How modified by in-

flammation— Acarus folliculorum — Analysis of sebaceous fluid — Relations of the sebaceous glands to the hair follicles — Vemix caseosa — Castoreum — Their origin — Uses ...... 225

II. Perspiration. — The sweat-glands — Analysis of sweat — Gases contained

in it — Amount in twenty-four hours — Origin — Uses — Effects of " check

of the perspiration" explained ...... 228

THIRD DIVISION.

THE TISSUES.

Classification of the Tissues.

epithelium, nails, and hair.

Section First. — Epithelium

Definition — Form and contents of epithelial cells — Their si^e — Five varieties of epithelium ...... 235

XIV TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PAGE

1. Scaly epithelium. — a. Simple scaly — Distributiou — Peculiarities, b.

Compound scaly — Distribiitiou— Peculiarities — Its modifications in

the lower animals ....... 238

2. Conoidal epithelium. — A. Simjjle conoidal — Distribution — Peculiari-

ties. B. Compound conoidal — Distribution . . . 241

3. Ciliated epithelium. — Cilia described, tlieir action and uses — Distri-

bution of ciliated epithelium — Peculiarities . . . 243

Development of epithelium — Its reparation — Functions of the several

kinds of eiiitlielium — Action of various agents upon . . 244

Patholofjical conditions of epithelium — Epithelioma — Papillomata — Epithelial cancer — New formations of epithelium — Peculiar appearances of epithelium of the tongue in disease — Fungous growths upon — Oidium albicans ...... 247

Section Second. — The Nails

Are a modification of the epidermis — Bed of the nail — Divisions of the nail itself — Its structure — Growth of nails — Time necessary for their development — Regeneration — Uses .... 249 Patholo(jicnl states of the nails ...... 252

Section Third — The Hairs

Subdivisions of a hair : 1. Shaft ; fibrous substance ; its color ; cuticle ; the medullary substance. 2. Hair-sac; root-sheath; the papilla; chemical composition of hair ; physical properties ; distribution and size of the hairs ; number on a given surface — Development of the hair — Periodical shedding of — Uses and physiological relations of the hair — Its sudden changes in color . . . 253

Pathological developments of hair ..... 267

CHAPTER II.

YELLOW FIBROUS (ELASTIC) TISSUE.

Its three varieties of form — Description of — Arranged in three principal modes in the various organs — Vessels of elastic tissue — Chemical composition — Not acted upon by acetic acid — Its properties and uses — Distribution of yellow fibrous tissue — Distribution in the lower animals . . 268

Development of elastic tissue — Nuclear fibres — Growth of elastic tissue — Is

not regenerated ........ 269

Patholo(jic(d new formations of elastic tissue . . . . . 274

CHAPTER III.

WniTE FIBROUS (COLLAGENOUS) TISSUE.

Description — Contains no nerves or lymphatics — Its chemical composition — Its properties and uses — Distribution — Structure of tendons and ligaments, and fibro-cartilages — Fibrous membranes — Structure of the cornea — Contains no vessels ...... 275

Distribution of white fibrous tissue in the lower animals — Development of

white fibrous tissue — Its growth and reparation . . . 282

Pa//(o/o//)Va/ .s/rr/f.s and new formations of collagenous tissue . . 283

TABLE OF CONTENTS. XV

CHAPTER IV.

AREOLAR TISSUE.

PAGE

Distinguished from connectivo tissue — Description — Its two fibrous elements,

and its areolae — Contents of the latter ..... 284 Chemical composition and properties of areolar tissue — Its vessels — Uses —

Distribiition — Peculiarities ...... 287

The subcutaneous areolar tissue — Description — Relations to it of fat-cells . 289 Development of areolar tissue : 1. In repair by granulation ; 2. In union

by adhesion — Mr. Paget's experiments — Its regeneration . , 291

Pathological states and new formations — Hyperti'ophy — CEdema — Dropsy —

Pneumatosis — Subcutaneous areolar tissue the seat of fatty tumors . 293

Chapter V. Adipose Tissue

Adipose or fat-cells — Their peculiarities — Contents — Intercellular connective tissue — Its peculiarities in the lower animals — Its chemical composition ......... 295

Distribution of adipose tissue — Peculiarities in this respect ; illustrated by

Circumstances modifying the deposit of fat . . . . . 302

Distribution of adipose tissue in the lower animals — Use of fat as a tissue —

Its development, growth, and regeneration .... 303

Pathological states and new formations of adipose tissue — Atrophy — Hypertrophy— Adipose tumors, or lipomata — Encysted tumors — Cholesteatoma 306

Fatty degeneration, or stearosis : 1, of bone; 2, of heart ; 3, of paralyzed muscles ; 4, of kidney ; 5, of liver ; 6, of arteries (atheroma) — Fat abounds in encephaloid ....... 309

Chapter VI. Cartilage

Varieties : 1. Simple cellular cartilage ; 2. Compound cartilage — Description— Cartilage cells — Intercellular homogeneous substance — Perichondrium ........ 313

Chemical composition of cartilage — Its properties and uses — Its development ......... 315

Pathological states and new formations of cartilage — Ulceration — Loose cartilage, so called, in joints — Enchondroma — Atrophy — Necrosis — Fatty degeneration ........ 319

Section First. — Osseous Tissue

Its ultimate granules — The lacunae and pores — The vascular canals of osseous tissue — 1. Cancellated bone structure ; the cancelli ; their

XVI TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PAGE

contents ; 2. Compact bone structure ; its general lamellae ; special lamellae — Haversian rods — "Various forms of lacunae and pores — Chemical composition of osseous tissue — Its changes in pregnancy — Its changes in various diseases — Sclerosis — Osteoporosis — Rachitis— Softening — Caries — Properties and uses of the osseous tissue — Its distribution — Its distribution in the lower animals . . 321

Section Second. — Structure of Bones

Their bloodvessels — Lymphatics do not exist — Nerves of the bones — The marrow — Its uses — Do. in birds — Periosteum — Articular cartilages— Synovial membranes ; are not closed sacs — Interarticular fibro-cartilages — Connection of tendons and ligaments with bones — Structure of the diarthrodial articulations — The amphiarthroses or symphyses — The synarthroses — Properties of the bones — Their uses — Their strength as columns of support .... 336

Development of Bones : 1. Cancellated bone-structure — cancelli formed

by absorption ....... 350

2. Develojiment of the compact bone-substance — Pores formed by absorption— Development of secondary bones — Remai'ks — Weight of bone formed in a day — Fractures — Growth of bone — Its reparation 35(>

Pathological conditions and new formations of bone — Hypertrophy — Atrophy — Osteostearosis — Necrosis — Osteoporosis — Cancerous and tuberculous deposits in bone — New formations of bone (true ossification) ........ 365

Section First. — Dental Tissue

Relations of dentine, enamel, and cementum : 1. Dentine — its intertubular substance ; its chemical analysis ; the dentinal tubuli. 2. Enamel — description of its fibres, and chemical composition. 3. Cementum — chemical analysis of. Remarks . . . 367

Section Second. — Structure of the Teeth

1. Cortical portion. 2. Dental pulp — its vessels and nerves; the gum : periosteum of the alveolus. Properties, uses, and development of the teeth — Time of appearance of the different teeth . . 374

Pathological states of the teeth : Exostosis ; necrosis ; caries ; teeth colored in jaundice — developed in abnormal situations . . 382

Section First. — Muscular Tissue

1. Contractile fibre-cells, or smooth muscular fibre : Description — Chemical composition — Their distribution — Peculiarities in the uterus — Their distribution in the lower animals — Functions of the contractile fibre-cells — Their development — Regeneration . . 383 Pathological conditions and now formations of contractile fibre-colls :

Hypertrophy — Atrophy — Fatty degeneration . . . 391

TABLE OF CONTENTS. Xvii

PAGE

2. Striated muscular tissue : Description of striated fibres — A. Myolemina ; b. Myoline. The fibrillse — Peculiarities in the heart — Chemical composition, and physical properties of striated muscular tissue. 1. The " muscular juice ;" 2. The musculine. Analysis of muscular substance — Color of muscular fibres — their elasticity. Distribution of striated muscular fibres — their elasticity and peculiar forms in the lower animals. Development of striated muscular fibre — Growth — Functions of do. — Modifications of contractility of do. — Spasm — Paralysis — The rigor mortis . . . 392

Patholofjical conditions and new formations of striated muscular fibre : Hypertrophy — Atrophy — Stearosis — Softening — Rupture — Concretions— Ossification — Parasites — New formations in testis and ovarian tumors ........ 405

Section Second. — ■Structure of the Muscles

Divisions of fusiform muscles — Aponeurosis — Tendon — Belly — the perimysium — Connection of the tendons with muscular fibres — Connection of do. with bones — Vessels of the muscles — Nerves — their final subdivision — Peculiarities of muscular nerves in lower animals . . . . . . . . 408

Accessory organs of the muscles : 1. Muscular envelops, or fascife. 2. Ligaments of the tendons. 3. Tendinous sheaths and synovial sacs. 4. Fibro-cartilages and sesamoid bones. Physical properties of the muscles — Physiological remarks — Tonicity — Sensibility — Muscular sound — Heat developed by muscular contraction . 417

Development of the muscles — Do. tendons • • . . 421

Pathological states of muscles and accessories — Talipes — Ganglion

Housemaid's knee ....... 422

Section First. — The Nervous Tissue

1. The fibrous or tubular nerve-tissue : Various sizes of nerve-fibres •

their structural elements ; the neurilemma ; neurine ; the axis-fibre ; the medulla or pulp. Fine nerve-fibres not peculiar to the sympathetic system — Fibres of Remak — Distribution of nerve-fibres — Chemical composition of do. — Functions of do. , 423

Development of nerve-fibres : 1. Those in nerve trunks ; 2. Peripheral terminations of nerve-fibres ; 3. Nerve-fibres in the central organs ; growth of nerve-fibres ...... 431

Pathological states and new formations of nerve-fibres : Atrophy Division of fibres — Neuroma — New formations of, in pleuritic adhesions, &c. •••..... 433

2. Nerve-cells: Various forms — Contents — Distribution. Chemical

composition and physical properties — Functions of nerve-cells

development of do. ....... 434

Pathological stales and new formations of nerve-cells . . . 437

Xviii TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PAGE

Section Secoxd. — Structure of the Nervous System.

1. Structure of the nerves ...... 438

Perineurium — Bloodvessels ...... 438

A. The spinal nerves ; tlieir roots ; ganglion-cells and ganglion-

fibres — Pacinian bodies ..... 439

B. Ganglionic nerves ; their ganglion-cells and ganglion-fibres —

Distribution of the latter . . . • .444

c. The encephalic nerves : 1. The fifth pair ; 2. The motor nerves ; 3. Those of special sensation ; first pair, and optic nerve ; optic chiasma. Five layers of the retina ; acoustic nerve. Distribution of vestibular and cochlear branches . . 446

2. Structure of the nervous centres.

A. The spinal cord ; longitudinal and horizontal fibres of its white

matter ; fibres of its gray substance ; various forms of cells in latter ........ 455

Do the fibres of the cord ascend to the brain ? . . .458

B. Structure of the encephalon.

1. Medulla oblongata and pons Varolii. 2. Cerebellum ; its gray matter ; peculiar cells in ferruginous layer. 3. The ganglion of the cerebrum ; corpora quadrigemina ; optic thalami ; corpora striata. 4. Cerebral hemispheres ; their white substance ; their gray matter . . . 460

The membranes and vessels of the nervous centres.

1. Pia mater; plexus choroides ; ependyma ventriculorum. 2. Arachnoid. 3. Dura mater ; vessels of preceding membranes ; lymphatics of do. ; nerves of do. ; vessels of encephalon and cord. Chemical composition of the nervous centres ; quantity of fat in the brain ; do. of phosphorus • . . 468

Functions of the nervous system ..... 474

Pathological states of the nervous centres .... 475

Chapter XI. The Membranes

Typical forms of papillse, villi, and glands .... 475

I. The skin.

A. The corium ; its structure ; the tactile papillse . . . 476

B. Basement-membrane, c. Epithelium — Epidermis, and stratum

Malpighianum — their absolute and relative thickness. Chemical composition, and physical properties of the skin — its bloodvessels, lymphatics, and nerves — Development of the skin — Regeneration of do. ..... 479

Appendages and accessary organs of the skin : 1. Subcutaneous bursas mucosse ; 2. Sebaceous glands— Various forms — Minute structure — Development ; 3. Sweat-glands — their number — Volume — Aggregate length — Minute structure — Ceruminous glands . . 486 Functions of the skin .....•• 492

Pathological states of the skin : 1. Of the epithelium ; 2. Of the corium ;

3. Of the sebaceous glands ....•• 493

TABLE OF CONTENTS. XIX

PAGE

II. Mpcocs Membranes : Variety and structure — their functions , . 495

Pathological states of the mucous membranes — Atrophy — Inflammatory

exudations upon — Ulceration ..... 495

III. Serous Membranes ; Structure — are closed sacs — functions . . 496

IV. False Membranes : Usually confounded with coagulated exudations —

Are organized exudations, with vessels — Prone to involution — New membranes ........ 497

Chapter XII. The Vascular System

I. The Heart : The pericardium — Muscular fibres of the heart — Endocardium— Valves — Vessels ...... 498

II, The Bloodvessels : a. The arteries; 1. External coat; 2. Middle coat; 3. Inner coat — Vasa vasorum — Nerves of the vessels, b. The capillaries— Walls of simple membrane merely — Capillary plexus — " Vasa serosa" do not exist, c. The veins — Structure of smallest veins — Do. of medium size — Do. of largest — Veins presenting peculiarity of structure — Their valves .... 500

III. Lymphatic Vessels and Glands : Capillary lymphatics — the largest do.

Thoracic duct — Their vessels and valves .... 509

Structure of lymphatic glands — Degeneration of the latter . . 510

Functions of the vascular system ..... 511

Development of the heart, arteries, and veins — Do. of capillaries . 511

Pathological conditions and new formations of vessels — ^Atheroma in 1 arteries — Aneurism — Varicose veins — Fatty degeneration of capil-

New formations of vessels ...... 513

Chapter XIII

structure of alimentary canal and its appendages subdivisions of alimentary

canal.

A. Alimentary Canal.

1. Oral cavity. — Its mucous membrane ; corium of the latter ; papillae of do . ; papillse of the tongue, filiform, fungiform, and circumvallate ; their uses ....... 514

Pathological appearances of the tongue . . . . .518

Glands of the oral cavity; 1. Mucous; 2. Simple follicular; 3. Compound follicular . . . . . . .519

Salivary glands ........ 521

II. Pharynx. — Its mucous membrane ; its glands ; bloodvessels, lymphatics,

III. (Esophagus. — Its structure ...... 522

IV. Structure of the stomach; gastric glands ; peptic cells ; bloodvessels of stomach ; lymphatics, and nerves ..... 523

V. Structure of the small intestine.

Jejunum — Ileum — The villi ; size and structure ; the laoteals ; function

XX TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PAGE of the villi ; glands of the small intestines ; 1. Lieberkuhn's glands ; 2. Brunner's glands ; 3. Closed follicles (Peyer's glands) ; Peyer's patches ....... 526

VI. Large Intestine — its glands : 1. Lieberkuhn's ; 2. Peculiar closed follicles ; its bloodvessels ....... ^2>\

B. Appendages to the Alimestakv Canal.

1. Liver. — No distinct lobules in man ; relations of vessels in its islets 532 Capsule of Glisson — portal canals ; arrangement of hepatic cells in the

islets ; their connection with the hepatic ducts; sacculi of the latter ; capillary network of the islets. Chemical composition of the liver; its functions ; pathological conditions ; cii'rhosis ; jaundice 533

2. Pancreas — its structure ; function of pancreatic fluid . . 540

Chapter XIV. The Urinary Apparatus

1. The urethra (of the female) ; its structure ; 2. The bladder; its muscular layers ; its mucous membrane : 3. The ureters and pelvis of the kidney ; their fibrous coat ; muscular do. ; mucous membrane ; 4. Structure of the kidneys ; cortical and tubular portions : 1. Tubuli uriniferi ; structure and arrangement ; their contorted form in the cortical portion. 2. Other peculiarities of the latter ; Malpighian bodies ; their number ; vessels of the kidney ; nerves ; chemical analysis of the kidney ; its function; development .... 541

Pathological states of the kidney ...... 549

Chapter XV

the SEXUAL ORGANS.

L Sexual Apparatus of the Male.

1. The urethra; its corpus spongiosum — Muscular layers; mucous membrane ; the penis ; its corpora cavernosa ; muscular fibres in their trabeculse ; its arteries, lymphatics, nerves — Prostate gland ; its muscular portion, glandular portion. 2 and 3. Vesiculze seminales, with the ejaculatory ducts and vasa deferentia ; their structure. 4. The testes ; their fibrous tunic — Lobules of parenchyma — Seminiferous tubes, their contents — The spermatozoids, their movements — Ejaculatio seminis ..... 550

n. Sexual Organs of the Female.

1. The vulva; mucous membrane; numerous papillae — Sebaceous

glands — Bartholini's glands ..... 559

2. The vagina ; muscular layer ; mucous membrane ; its paipillas ; hy-

3. The uterus and oviducts ; their muscular layers ; mucous membrane

of uterus ; presents no papillae ; numerous glands — Mucous membrane of canal of cervix uteri ; its rugre and glands — Mucous membrane of Fallopian tubes — Round ligaments — Broad ligaments — Uterine sinuses ....... 560

TABLE OF CONTENTS. XXI

PAGE

Changes of the uterus at the menstrual period and in pregnancy — Do.

immediately after latter . . . . . .504

4. The ovaries ; structure ; ovisac ; its membrane ; its contents ; mem-

brana granulosa ; germinal disk ; ova ; vitelline membrane ; zona pellucida ; yolk ; germinal vesicle ; germinal spot — Corpus luteum of menstruation — Do. of pregnancy — Function of»female genitalia — Slight sensibility of the interior of the uterus . . . 565

5. The lacteal gland ; its structure — Muscular fibres in the mammilla

and areola — Teiminal lactiferous ducts .... 569

Chapter XVI. Respiratory Organs

Air passages : 1. Nasal passages and upper portion of pharynx ; structure of mucous membrane; its glands. 2. Larynx and trachea; their structure ; do. of mucous membrane ; its glands ; ciliated epithelium ; bloodvessels ; lymphatics and nerves. 3. Lungs ; Bronchi and their subdivisions ; muscular fibres of do. ; their mucous membrane — The pulmonary arteries — The bronchial arteries — interlobular connective tissue — pulmonary lobules ; their structure — Connection of the terminal air-tubes with the air-cells ; structure of the latter ; their number — ■ Capillary plexus of the lobules, ...... 572