First lessons on agriculture : for Canadian farmers and their families

Front matter

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Part First. Preparatory Knowledge

“Lesson L The Farmer, and his profession ; what he has to do ; what he ought to know ; how he may learn ; the substances with which he has to do 9 15

Lesson II. On the two kinds of substances with which the Farmer has to do — organic and inorganic ; the proportions of these substances in soils, plants and animals 16, IT

Lesson III. On the organic constituents of plants and

animals 18, 19

Lesson IV. The fifteen elementary substances ; their

names, symbols, and equivalent numbers 20, 21

Lesson V. Explanation of chemical terms 21-25

Lesson VI. Definitions of the acids, bases, and salts ; of the terminations, ide, uret, ous, ic, ite, and ate ; of the prefixes hypo, per, proto, deuto or bin, trito or ter 26-33

Lesson VII. Some account of the nature and properties of four of the fifteen elementary substances — oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon 33-38

(Note. Lessoa VIII, was accidentally marked IX. The subsequent Lessons are in proper order from IX.)

Lesson IX. Chlorine, sulphur, phosphorus 38-42

Lesson X. Metals— potassium and sodium 43-45

Lesson XI. Calcium and magnesium (metals of alkaline

earths) 46 48

Lesson XII. Aluminum and silicon (metals of earths) 48-51

Lesson XIII. Metals employed in the arts — iron and manganese 51-56

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CONTENTS.

Lesson XIV. Other useful metals — tin, copper, zinc,

lead 56-G3

Lesson XV. The noble metals — mercury, silver, platinum, gold 63-66

Lesson XVI. Kinds of soil 66-TO

Lesson XVII. Structure of plants and offices of their

organs 70-76

(Note. — The student-farmer (unless preparing to teach) need only commit to

memory the text (in large type) of the First Part of this hook, excepting the 1st, 14th, and 15th Lessons ; an attentive perusal, with references as occasion may require, will enable him to master the subjects of the Second Part, for all practical purposes.)

SECOND PART.

Lesson XVIII. Composition of soils and plants, and

their relations to each other 77-80

Lesson XIX. Soils adapted to different kinds of grain and vegetables 80-82

Lesson XX. How to conserve soils. Soils, how used ; constituents of good soils ; object, nature, and classification of manures 82-85

Lesson XXL How to conserve soils [continued). Vegetable manures 85-87

Lesson XXII. How to conserve soils [continued]. Animal manures 87-88

Lesson XXIII. How to conserve soils [continued).

Mixed manures 88-92

Lesson XXIV. How to conserve soils [continued).

Inorganic or mineral manures, lime 92-95

Lesson XXV. How to conserve soils [continued).

Inorganic or mineral manures — marls, gypsum .... 95-98

Lesson XXVI. How to conserve soils [continued).

Lesson XXVII. How to conserve soils [continued). Other inorganic or mineral manures — soot, nitrates, old lime plaster, broken brick, burnt clay 101-105

CONTENTS.

XI

Lesson XXVIII. How to conserve and improve soils {continued). Amendments, irrigation, drainage, subsoil ploughing 105-113

(Note.— No. 29th Lesson.)

Lesson XXX. Rotation of crops ; nature of rotation of crops ; advantages of it ; order of rotation ; courses of rotation in Great Britain and United States .... 113-122

Lesson XXXI. Sowing, care, and harvesting of grain crops (wheat. 122-127 ; rye, 127, 128; barley, 127- 130; oats, 130, 131; Indian corn, 132-138; buckwheat, 138, 139) 122-139

Lesson XXXII. Leguminous crops — beans and peas 139-142

Lesson XXXIII. Roots or esculent plants ; potatoes,

turnips, carrots, parsnips, beets 143-151

Lesson XXXIV. Grasses, meadows, pastures ; harvesting, curing, and care of hay 152-157

Lesson XXXV. Fruits 157, 158

Lesson XXXVI. Plants used in arts and manufactures ;

flax and hemp 158-162

Lesson XXXVII. Economy of the farm, its importance; farm house, barn and sheds, waggon house, farming tools, shade trees, wood lands ; proper care of stock ; poultry ; accurate accounts 162-171

Lesson XXXVIII. Economy of the household, its importance ; cleanliness and good cooking ; cultivation of flowers; piety; remarks on household economy; milk, its properties, care and uses ; how to make good butter and good cheese ; practice and philosophy of bread-making ; properties and cooking of meat ; cooking potatoes ; manufacture and properties of soap 171-188

Lesson XXXIX. Miscellaneous questions and answers relating to natural history — water, soils, fishes, birds, animals ; illustrative of Divine wisdom and benevolence 188-203

204-216

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PAET FIRST.

PEEPARATOEY KNOWLEDGE.

LESSON I.

THE FARMER AND HIS PROFESSION; WHAT HE HAS TO DO; WHAT HE OUGHT TO ENOW ; HOW HE MAY LEARN ; THE SUBSTANCES WITH WHICH HE HAS TO DO.

1. What is agriculture? — Agriculture (from two Latin words, ager^ field, cultura^ cultivation) is the art of cultivating the soil, so as to produce the largest crops at the smallest cost and the least injury to the soil. It also includes the raising and feeding of stock, and whatever relates to the farm buildings and domestic economy, the care and improvement of the land. He who thus cultivates the soil is a farmer.

2. Is not the farmer of great imjportancef — The farmer, who understands his business, is of great importance, and is entitled to high honour. It has been well said, that the first farmer was the first man, and all nobility rests on the possession and use of lands f and another writer has remarked, that ‘‘ the social angel, when he descended to converse with men, (Gen. 18 : 8) broke bread with the husbandman beneath the tree.’’ The patriarchs of ancient Scripture tilled the soil. Abraham was a farmer, rich in cattle, gold, and silver; and Job farmed on a large scale — having 7000 sheep, 300Q camels, 500 yoke of oxen, and 500 she asses,

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In Greece, agriculture was the theme of tlie popular poets, and the various improvements in husbandry, such as the introduction of nutritive grains and the invention of useful implements for tilling the soil, were ascribed to the immediate bounties of the Gods. Later^ the land was the chief article of property, and the freemen who cultivated it were honoured above manufacturers, mechanics, and traders.

Among the ancient Komans — in the purest times — agriculture was held in still greater honour than among the Greeks. The proudest patricians and most illustrious citizens lived on their farms, and worked with their own hands. In England, at this day, the nobility shrink from manufactures and trades, and stand aloof from the professions of law and medicine ; but Earls, Dukes, and even Princes, cultivate lands, preside at agricultural festivals, compete for prizes at agricultural exhibitions, and write treatises on the rotation of crops, the culture of roots, and the manufacture of manures. The most illustrious men in America have been farmers.

3. Why is the farmer considered as of so great importance f — There are three reasons why the farmer is considered of great importance. (1) His employment is that first assigned by God to man, and approaches most closely to the works of the Divine Being, who gives to the earth its fertility and adorns it with beauty. (2) His employment is the source of wealth and comfort to the whole country. When agriculture declines, the country declines. When harvests are abundant, the country prospers. The failure of the crops for a single year deranges every branch of trade and conxmerce, and causes general disaster and suffering. Agriculture furnishes daily bread to the whole population. The chase and the fisheries yield something ; but the

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produce of tlie soil, in the form of either vegetable or animal food, spreads the table, and constitutes the mass of the food, for the whole community. The chief materials of onr clothing are derived from the same source — wool, flax, leather, and, in neighbouring countries, cotton and silk ; but cotton and silk are procured by the other productions of our own soil. (3) The employment of the farmer is the true element of independence, freedom, and virtuous enjoyment. It is true, that by the law of our constitution and being, we are all, to a certain extent, dependent upon each other; but, within this divine limitation, none are so independent, and, therefore, none so free, as the farmer ; and none so favourably situated for the cultivation of the quiet virtues of the heart and flreside. It is also true, that among farmers, as among merchants and traders, there is great diversity of wealth and fortune— the one owning his thousands of acres, his herds of cattle, his flocks of sheep, his ample rang^ of pastures, and his broad fields of tillage, and another being scarcely able to winter his single cow ; and another still, not even able to hire a farm, but must toil as a farm-labourer ; yet, in the widely diflTused ownership and cultivation of the land by an independent yeomanry, there is the best material guarantee for the freedom and virtuous prosperity of a country, and the most abundant source of individual and social enjoyment.

4. But has not the farmer often to do hard and dirty worh? — Yes! the farmer often has hard and dirty work to do ; but so has the chemist in the laboratory, the surgeon in the dissecting room, tlie physician often in his practice ; and the advocate, and even judge upon the bench, have sometimes much more often si ve work to do, both intellectually and morally, than the farmer in his furrows or in Ids stables. It is not \yhat is worn, or what attaclios

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from without, that defiles or degrades tlie farmer; it is that which is wanting, or comes from within.

5. What should a far ?ner Icnow in order to succeed in his employment and to fulfil the functions of his social position ? — The farmer should know all that is essential to his employment, the same as a lawyer or physician should know what belongs to his profession, and a carpenter or shoemaker should know what appertains to his trade. Many a man who works on a farm is no farmer, as there is many a quack in trades, law and medicine. A farmer should know something of the nature and formation of the crust of the earth which he cultivates, of the manures which he applies, or should apply to enrich it ; of the crops he raises ; of the animals he rears, the kinds of food and treatment they require, their milk and other products ; of the tools he uses and the principles on Avhich they are constructed ; of the food and beverages on which. he subsists, and how they are best prepared ; of the atmosphere and climate in which he lives, and their influence upon all his operations and interests. He should know the language in which he speaks, and how to keep his accounts. He should know the geography, history and institutions of his own country, and something of those of other countries. He should also know and discharge his religious duties, cultivate and practice the moral and social virtues.

6. Why should a farmer hnow these things ? — A farmer should know these things for three reasons :

(1) because tlie knowledge of them will enable him to know the why and wherefore of all he plans and does, to avoid many mistakes and losses, and to employ his strength and means to the best advantage ;

(2) because such knowledge will convert what seems a mechanical, if not useless drudgery into a rational and noble employment, unfolding the laws and

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l)eaiities of the material world ; (3) because he will thus be qualified to enjoy the fruits of his industry, and to discharge his personal, social, and public duties.

7. How may a farmer learn these things? — Every farmer, Avith his sons and daughters, has learned some of these things without any apparent study or labour ; but, for purposes of both practice and enjoyment, he, with the elder members of his household, can learn all that is contained in the following pages, in the course of three months, by devoting an hour’s family study and conversation to them each evening, and that Avithout the aid of teacher or school, other than this little book and their own good sense. The Avriter of these pages, between fifteen and twenty years of age,learned the greater part of the languages, literature, and science that he then acquired, during the evenings, and between the hours of three and six o’clock in the mornings. Any farmer’s son who Avill carry a copy of this little book in his pocket, and learn a section or two of it, at each interval Avhen he is resting his team, &c., will be gratified and surprised to find at the end of the week or month, how much he has learned that Avill be useful for life, and how many idle thoughts, and idle words, he has avoided. When I was a lad, and before I Avas sixteen years of age, I learned a much larger and more difficult book than this in a single month, and that, too, while working daily very hard on the farm. If a boy is aided by a school and teacher, so much the better ; but if he has not such advantages, he can learn Avhat will make him an intelligent and useful man by seizing the odds and ends of time during his daily labour. It is what is in the boy, and Avhat he resolves, and does, and not outward circumstances, that will make the man.

8. But are not the terms used in the chemistry and science of agriculture very hard words^ and

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mry hard to learn ? — The terms used in the chemistry and science of agriculture appear to be hard words and hard to learn ; but they are not so many nor so hard to learn as the alphabet of twenty-six letters, which every child has to learn ; not so many nor so hard to learn as the terms which must be got by heart in learning the elements of grammar, or geography, or arithmetic. Besides, every term employed in agricultural chemistry, and in agriculture, represents some substance with which the farmer has to do, and which he can see, or feel, or taste, or smell — which is not the case with the ABO which every child has to learn. The alphabet of agricultural chemistry, like the longer alphabet of our language, has to be learned only once for life, and may then be applied to an endless variety of purposes. The vocabulary of agricultural chemistry consists of the names of fifteen simple substances with which the farmer has to do, and which with their combinations constitute the chief parts of all that we see in nature above, around, and beneath us. The farmer, and every member of his family, able to read, can learn the names of three of these fifteen substances in a day, and thus learn the names of all of them in less than a week. He can learn and remember them as easily as he can learn and remember the names of his neighbours, or of the kinds of grain, vegetables and trees on his farm.

9. What are the names of these substances? — The names of these substances are oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon, sulphur, chlorine, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, silicon, aluminum, iron, manganese. These fifteen words are the alphabet of agricultural chemistry ; and as by combining in various ways, the twenty-six letters of our common alphabet, we express all that we think, or feel, or know, and all that is contained in all the books of our language, so the substances ex-

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pressed by these fifteen chemical terms, variously combined, form the chief elements of our own bodies and of the visible world around us.

10. Will you explain these chemical terms ? — In the following lessons of this book I will explain them, the simple substances they represent, the combinations they enter into, and the terms and symbols employed to express these combinations, in forming the varied materials of the mineral, vegetable, and animal kingdoms with which the farmer has to do. But I will here give familiar examples of the meaning and application of these fifteen terms which make the basis of scientific agriculture. We all breathe the air / and the air is composed of oxygen and nitrogen. We all drink water • and water is composed of oxygen and hydrogen. Many of us burn coal ; and pure charcoal or mineral coal is carbon. We all use lucifer snatches to light fires and lamps ; and on one end of those matches is sulphur.^ tipped phosphorus. We all eat common salt ; and common salt is composed of chlorine and sodium. We could not get our soap.^ so important to cleanliness, without potash ; and potash is composed of potassium and oxygen. We could not have comfortable houses without lime * and lime is composed of calcium and oxygen. We have all come in contact with sand.^ and sand is composed of silicon and oxygen. We have all met with clay in more forms than one ; and clay is composed of aluminum and oxygen. We could not be a civilized people without iron * and we should be badly off without glass.^ in the manufacture of which manganese is much used. Thus, by thinking of air, water, coal, matches, salt, &c., and of what they are composed, we are reminded of the names of the fifteen substances which form the basis of scientific agriculture, and of most of our manufactures. This will be shown in the following lessons-

PREPAKATORY KNOWLEDGE.

LESSON II.

ON THE TWO KINDS OF SUBSTANCES WITH WHICH THE FARMER HAS TO DO — ORGANIC AND INORGANIC; THE PROPORTIONS OF THESE SUB- STANCES IN ROOTS, PLANTS AND ANIMALS.

11. Ilow is matter divided ; and in what form does it exist f — The matter, or substance, of which the world around us is composed, is cither organic or inorganic, and exists in a solid, liquid, or aeriform state ; that is, in the form of wood or stone, of water, or of air.

12. What is meant l)y organic and inorganic substances ? — Organic substances are such as possess organs, by means of which they grow and continue in being, as the roots and leaves of plants, the lungs, stomach, &c., of animals. Inorganic substances are such as have no organs and do not grow, as minerals, water, and air.

13. Of which of these substances are soils ^ plants^ and animals composed? — Soils, plants,^' and animals are composed of both organic and inorganic substances.

14. How do you distinguish between the organic and inorganic parts of soils ^ plants^ and animals ? — You may distinguish between the organic and inorganic parts of the soil, by placing a portion of it on a piece of sheet iron, or on the end of a knife, and holding it in or over the fire, when the organic part will first turn black and then burn aw^ay, evaporating in smoke; and the inorganic part will remain, assuming a grey, brown, or reddish color. If you burn a straw or bit of wood in a lamp or candle, the organic part of the plant burns and passes away

^ By tlie terra plant is meant all vegetable productions, from tlie garden rose to the forest oak.

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in smoke, the inorganic or mineral part remains as ashes. So, if you put into the fire a morsel of the flesh, or bone, or skin, of an animal, the organic part is consumed, the inorganic part becomes an ash, and remains. Thus, the organic parts of soils, plants, and animals, are combustible and may be burned up; the inorganic part cannot be burnt, but are incombustible, and remain as ashes,

15. How can you find out the proportion of organic and inorganic matter in soils^ plants^ and animals ; and what is that proportion You may find out the proportion of organic and inorganic matter in soils, plants, and animals, by weighing the (dried) portions of them used in the experiment before they are burnt ; and then weiging the residue or ashes remaining unconsumed. It will be found that rich alluvial soils or loams contain from 5 to 10 per cent, of organic or vegetable matter ; that some peaty soils contain more than 50 per cent, and other poor soils, not more than 1 or 2 per cent, of vege* table or combustible matter. It will be found, also, that the ashes, or mineral portion, of dry wood is from 1 to 4: per cent.— that dry straw contains 5 or 6 per cent., and dry hay from 8 to 10 per cent, of mineral matter ; that the mineral matter of dry flesh, skin, or hair, is only 5 per cent. These experiments show, that the soil contains much inorganic or mineral matter, and little organic or vegetable matter ; that the plant contains much organic and little mineral matter; that the soft parts oi animals contain little, and the hard or solid parts^ much mineral matter^

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LESSON III.

ON ORQANIO CONStoUENTS OF FLAN^TS AND ANIMALS.

(Note. Before noticing the mineral and simple chemical sub-^ stances which constitute platits and animals, it will be proper to state their organic constituents, which may be understood without any knowledge of chemistry or of chemical terms ; and which will prepare the way for considering the simple elementary substances of which these organic constituents themselves consist. The organic constituents of the soil are, of course, the remains of dead plants and animals, which are mixed with the mineral earth. As the organic substances originate entirely in plants, and then pass, under new modifications, into the systems of animals, we will first consider the organic constituents of plants, and then those of animals; after which we will enquire into the simple elementary substances of which these constituents of both plants and animals are composed.)

16. What are the organie constituents of plants f —The organic constituents of plants are four — woody^fihre^ starchy gluten^ oil or fat.

17. What is woody-fibre? — Woody-fibre is the most abundant product of vegetation, and is the substance which forms the bulk of all trees, giving them firmness and strength ; and exists in straw, hay, chafi’, the bran of wheat, the husks and skin of seeds, the stones and shells of fruit, and the fibres of flax, hemp, cotton, &c. By nitric acid, these fibres are converted into gun cotton.

18. What is starch f — Starch is well-known from its use to stiffen cotton, linen, and other cloth ; is a white powder with no smell, very little taste, and gives a very peculiar sound when squeezed between the fingers ; is the chief ingredient of bread, forms more than three^fourths of the substance of the dried potatoe, and about half the weight of oaten and Indian corn meal, and of rye flour, &c.

19. What is gluten Grluten is a tough, elastic, grey substance, which forms an essential part of ^heat, constitutes the chief nutritious parts of gi*ains, and gives to dough all its tenaciousness. It is also called vegetable fibrin^ from its identity of

PEEPAKATORY KNOWLEDGE* composition with the fibrin^ or muscular fibre of flesli, or lean meat.

20. What is the fourth organic constituent of flantsf — The fourth organic constituent of plants is oil or fat, which occurs more or less abundantlyin all plants ; even in those where we should not expect to find any — such as grains and grapes ; but it is generally most abundant in the seeds or nuts of certain plants, as in linseed, hempseed, poppyseed, walnuts, hickory-nuts, &c.

21. What are the organic constituents of the dry^ solid parts of animals f — The organic constituents of the dry, solid parts of animals are the same in number as those of plants ; namely four — muscle or lean fleshy fat^ bone^ and shin. {Johnston.)

22. Can you describe each of these substances? — (1) The dry muscle or lean flesh consists chiefly of blood and a white fibrous substance, called which enters largely into the composition of the blood, and forms the basis of the muscles. It is nearly identical with the gluten of the plant.

(Note. The term dry is used in connection with flesh, because, in its natural state, fresh lean meat contains about the same per centage of water as potatoes — that is, 75 per cent.)

(2) The/h^ of animals is similar in composition and properties to the fixed oils of vegetables, as the solid fat of olive oil.

(3) The organic part of bone consists chiefly of gelatin, or glue, to which bone may be reduced by being boiled long in water.

(4) The skin consists also of gelatin, or glue, like the organic parts of bone. When boiled some hours with water, the skin dissolves into a liquid, which, on cooling, coagulates into a tremulous jelly. This, when dried, forms the well-known glue.

(Note. The relations of plants and animals will bo ex2:>lained in a future lesson.)

PEEPAEATOET KNOWLEDGE.

LESSOX IV.

THE FIFTEEN ELEMENTARY SUBSTANCES, THEIR NAMES, SYMBOLS, AND EQUIVALENT NUMBERS.

(IS^OTE. Having in the preceding lesson stated that the organic constituents of plants are four — namely, woody fibre, starch, gluten, and oil or fat ; and having likewise stated that the organic constituents of animals are also four — namely, muscle or lean flesh, fat, bones and skin ; the next inquiry is, of what simple substances are these organic constituents themselves composed, and how are they formed in plants and animals ; and then what are the inorganic or mineral constituents of plants and animals, as also of soils and how are they formed ? But before answering these inquires, it will be proper to explain the terms which we must necessarily employ. These terms are the alphabet of agricultural chemistry — indeed of chemistry itself, with respect to agriculture — and must be acquired by all who would learn the materials of earth, air, and ocean, and their productions, the same as every child must learn the alphabet of letters in order to read and understand the interesting things contained in books.

In the last part of the First Lesson (8, 9) it was stated that all the simple substances with which the farmer has to do are only fifteen, and how they might be easily learned and remembered. Chemists indeed have discovered upwards of sixty simple substances ; but all are rare and enter little into the purposes of practical life except fifteen. The terms by which the names of these substances are known, and their combinations explained and understood, should be well learned by every student of nature and every intelligent farmer.)

23. What are the names of the fifteen elementary substances with which we have to do f — The following are the names of the fifteen elementary bodies which, in various combinations, form all organic bodies on the surface of the earth, all rocks and soils, together with the atmosphere and waters of the ocean

(Note. Under the name of each body will be written the letter or symbol by which it is known and read, and the number — called the equivalent number — expressing the quantities according to which each substance unites with other substances, and which will be soon explained. The symbolic letters and equivalent numbers, as well as the names of the elementary substances, should be thoroughly committed to memory.)

* About fifty other elements have been discovered by Chemists in very minute quantities in rocks, soils, and organic bodies.

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NAMES OF ELEMENTARY SUBSTANCES.

Oxygen.

Sodium.

0-8

Hydrogen.

Calcium, Ca— 20

Nitrogen.

Magnesium.

Carbon.

Silicon.

Sulphur.

Aluminum.

Chlorine.

Iron.