Finland: its forests and forest management

Front matter

3 9424 04545 267 6

U.B.C. LIBRARY

^tttfeir Oj^t.

Preface

This is the third of a series of Volumes, the publication of which has been undertaken as a contribution to the literature of Forest Science in the English language. The publication of the first of the series, The Forests of England^ and the Management of Them in Byegone Times, resulted from the unexpected offer from a National Association to contribute £10 towards the expense, the Council of the Association having expressed the opinion that the successive publication of this and other Volumes of the series would certainly contribute to further the ends the Society had in view. When the proceeds of the sales of that Volume may suffice for the purpose, they will be spent in the publication of a companion Volume on the Management of English Forests in the Nineteenth Century, and their Present Condition, which is ready for the press.

In aid of the publication of the second of the series, French Forest Ordinance of 1669 ; with Historical Sketch of Previous Treatment of Forests in France^ £10 were contributed by Mr W. T. Costigan, Montreal. When the proceeds of sales may suffice for the purpose, these will be spent in the publication of a companion Volume on Forestry and Sylviculture in France subsequent to the publication of the Ordinance of 1669, which also is ready for the press.

For the publication of this, the third of the series, the printer has, without departing from the usages of the vi PREFACE.

trade, afforded facilities which are considered by me equivalent to a liberal pecuniary contribution. When the proceeds of sales from it may suffice for the purpose, they will be spent in the publication of a companion Volume on the Ethnography and Present Condition of the Finnish People, which is also ready for the press.

Meanwhile the printing of the fourth of the series has been begun. It relates to the Forests and Forestry of Northern Russia, and embodies details of the exploitation of forests by Jardinage and its effects.

The object aimed at is to produce popular technical treatises which may be useful to students of Forest Science who have not access to the works quoted, by stating views which have been advanced and have commanded attention, and by citing, or giving translations of statements bearing upon these, in such a form as to place readers in a position to work out for themselves a solution of problems raised, should they be so disposed,

I happened to spend the summer of 1879 in St. Petersburg, ministering in the British and American Chapel in that city, while the pastor sought relaxation for a few months at home. I was for years the minister of the congregation worshipping there, and T had subsequently repeatedly spent the summer among them in similar circumstances. I was at the time studying the Forestry of Europe ; and I availed myself of opportunities afforded by my journey thither through Norway, Sweden, and Finland, by my stay in Russia, and by my return through Germany and France, to collect information, bearing upon the enquiries in whicli I was engaged. On my return to Scotland I

PREFACE. vii

Contributed to the Journal of Forestry a series of papers which were afterwards reprinted under the title Glances at the Forests of Northern Europe. In the preface to this pamphlet I stated that in Denmark may be studied the remains of forests in pre-historic times ; in Norway, luxuriant forests managed by each proprietor as seemeth good in his own eyes ; in Sweden, sustained systematic endeavours to regulate the management of forests in accordance with the latest deliverances of modern science ; in Finland, Sartage disappearing before the most advanced forest economy of the day ; and in Russia, Jardinage in the north , merging into more scientific management in Central Russia, and Rehoisement in the south.

The following pages may be considered a study of information I then collected, together with information which I previously possessed, or have subsequently obtained, in regard to the Forests and Forestry of Finland.

In a paper entitled A British School of Forestry: Present Position of the Question, which appeared in the Journxd of Forestry and Estate Management in the issues of that magazine for April and May 1881, after stating what facilities for the study of Forest Science and of Practical Forestry exist, or might easily, and at little expense, be created in Britain, I remarked : —

' Should it be deemed desirable, as I think it is, that provision be made for still higher or more varied training being given to a select number of the more promising students, the desideratum can be met. In more than one of the most celebrated Schools of Forestry on the Continent provision is made for the attendance of foreigners, and these enjoy all the educational advantages of the alumni viii PHEFACfi.

on specified terms ; and assuming that the teacher of botany — if there be but one — or one of them, if there be more, be qualified by knowledge of the language spoken, such advanced students might be sent under his direction to attend at one of these Continental Forest Schools a summer session, and possibly permission might be obtained from the same or some other School of Forestry for the British students to accompany the students of the country on their autumnal excursion, and to take part with them in the forest work, to the great advantage of teacher and taught, and through them of the country at large/

It has been my design in the preparation of this Volume, and of the companion Volume on The Forests and Forestry of Northern Russia^ to indicate matters of general interest included within the general course of study of Forest Science which might come under the attention of British students availing themselves of provisions for the prosecution of their studies such as I have thus suggested.

But while such has been my design in the preparation of the Volume, this had nothing to do with my selection of the subject of the treatise.

Dr A. Blomqvist, Director of the National School of Forestry at Evois, has done me the favour to peruse several of the following sheets since they have been printed, and to indicate some of the points in treating of which I have erred. He takes exception, on the ground of orthography, to the forms which I have given to several Finnish and Swedish names and words, and gladly would I avail myself of the emendations suggested by him, were this still practicable. Unhappily it is not so ; but a few words of

PKEFACE. ii

apology and defence may be allowed me. Some of the forms I cannot justify — Peccavi! In other cases I have followed British usage \ Aho i^ as defensible as is Vienna *

o

further, the dipthongs " a " and " a " are forms with which English readers are not acquainted, and I had to exercise my discretion in rendering words in which these occurred. I find that in doing so I have failed to maintain uniformity, which I now regret ; and in other cases I have given in quotations the forms of names and words employed by the writers cited ; but I do not suppose that in any case an English reader will be misled to anything like the extent to which he would be were he to give in France his English pronunciation of Calais or Paris.

Amongst those which I cannot defend is the form which I have given to the word Svedjande in some of the earlier sheets ; this I have corrected on page 55, but I still find it more natural, both in speaking and in writing, to make use of the corrupted form. A more serious correction refers to the account I have given (p. 48) of the waterfall at Tammerfors, which shows that either I must have misunderstood my informant, or that he must have misunderstood the information communicated to him. Dr. Blomqvist informs me that there is not there a perpendicular water-fall 100 feet in height, but only a rapid.

Again, I have spoken of Finland as a Province of Russia. I am informed that it would have been more correct to have called it a Grand Duchy united to Russia. In Russia the term corresponding to " province " is ohlast ; but if we retranslate ohlast into English, the synonym is not " province " but territory, as that term is employed in the United States, — an extensive region subject to law,

* PREFACE.

but not yet enjoying the rights of a State. In European Russia the whole country is divided into Governments, but in Siberia there are both Governors and Governor- Generals. Subject to the Governor-Generals, each oblast has its Governor and its capital, which ranks as a Government town. The obI<ist again is divided into uyzeds, each of which has its principal town, over which presides an Ispravnick ; the uyzeds are divided into vollosts ; and vollosts into villages with a church (sello), or hamlets (derevnia), if there be none. The chief man of a vollost is a Zasidatil ; the chief man of a village is a Starosta^ or alderman. It is alleged that an oblast is a territory the government of which is still being developed, while in a Government the government is determinate, the civil and military organisations being distinct. Now Finland is not such a province as is a Siberian oblast; and thus does importance attach to the distinction now made.

I further learn that the account I haye given (p. 163) of the staff of teachers at the School of Forestry at Evois would require to be altered to make it correctly descriptive of the existing state of that Institution, and it was only in the editing of the first regulation of that Institute that Dr. Blomqvist acted as secretary to Mr Gylden, which requires a slight modification of a statement made on page 167.

In connection with the notice (p. 226) of Baron Rabbi Wrede having been Chief of the Administration of Forests from 1864 to 1870, it might have been stated that he was in 1859 appointed adjoint ordinaire to Mr Gylden in that office, and succeeded him as Chief (Forst styrelsen) in 1864, when that office was separated from the Department of Surveying (Landmateristf/relsen), which office he held

PREFACE. »

as stated, till 1870. Baron Wrede took an active part in the organisation of the Finnish Forest Institutions, and he has ever showed himself a zealous friend to the practice of the most advanced Forest Economy of the day.

JOHN C. BROWN,

Haddington, 1st September^ 1883.

AUTHORITIES CITED.

Chapter I. — The Saima See, ... ... ... ... 3

Journey from St. Petersburg to Wyborg (p. 3) ; the Saima Canal (p. 7) ; Lake Saima (p. 9) ; Lakes above Nyslot (p. 12) ; Koshells or Finnish Rafts {p. 13) ; Voyage to Kuopio (p. 15) ; Svedjande (p. 17)* ; Lake Steamers (p. 19) ; Falls of Imatra (p.21) ; Return to St. Petersburg (p. 26) ; Russian Monoliths (p. 29-30).

* Here and in some other places the word, through a mistake of the Author, subsequently observed, has been spelt Sevanje.

Chapter IL — Boating Adventures on the Ulea and the

Waterfalls (p. 31) ; Tar Boats (p. 32) ; Descent of the Ulea by Mr JS^icolson (p. 32) ; Descent of the Ulea by the Author of Frost and Fire (p. 34).

Chapter IIL — The Water Systems o/ Finland, ... 43

Account of the Water Systems by Dr Ignatius (p. 43) ; Account of them by Dr Rein (p. 46).

PART II — Forest Economy. Chapter I. — Primitive Treatment of Forests in Finland, 55

Section A. — Details of the Practice of ^ Sartage^ or

* Svedjande^ in Finland and Adjacent Lands, ... 55

The Operation and its Designations (p. 56) ; Similar practices in Sweden and Lapland, and in Russia (p. 59).

CONTENTS. xiii

Section B. — Forms assumed hy the Practice in other

In India, &c. (p. 62) ; Notices by Dr Buchanan of it in Mysore (p. 64), Canara (p. 66), and Malabar (p. 67); by Marsden in Sumatra (p. 68) ; by Sir James Emmerson Tennant in Ceylon (p. 68) ; and by others of it in Burmah and South Africa (p. 70) ; in the United States of America and the Dominion of Canada (p. 72).

Chapter II. — Discussion of the JSvils consequent on this Practice in Indittf ... ... ... ... 74

Chapter III. — Consideration of the Merits and Demerits of the Practice as still continued in France, 94

Chapter IV. — Climatic Effects of the Practice in Finland, ... ... ... ... ... ... 101

Europe was formerly covered with Forests (p. 101) ; Man in his Migrations has found many Lands a Wilderness, and has left them a Desert (p. 102) ; but the Destruction of Forests may not be an unmixed evil (p. 107) ; and the practice is alleged to be beneficial in its Climatic Effects in Finland (p. 112).

Chapter V. — Development of Modern Forest Economy

Compatability of Strict Economy with apparent Waste (p. 116) ; Imperial Instructions and Regulations relative to Management of Forests issued in 1848 (p. 118) ; Commission appointed in 1856 to enquire into everything pertaining to the Forests and the Management of them (p. 119) ; Successive Reports made by the Commissioners (p. 121).

Chapter VI. — Forest A dministration, ... ... 129

General arrangements for the Administration of Crown Forests (p. 129).

Section A. — Forest Protection and Exploitation, ... 130

Functions of Forest Wardens (p. 130) ; Instructions issued 13th May, 1859 (p. 132) ; Records preserved in each Forest District (p. 133) ; Work prescribed in the several months of the year (p. 135) ; Forms of Official Documents (p. 137) ; Forest Areas and Produce (p. 139).

XIV

CONTENTS,

Section B. — Forest Conservation and Amelioration^ ... 142

Data required (p. 142) ; Data collected by Dr Blomqvist (p. 143).

Chapter VII. — School of Forestry ^ 147

Establishment of School of Forestry at Evois in 1859 (p. 147) ; Imperial Decree relative to Re-organisation of the School in 1874 (p. 148) ; Rules laid down relative to the action and management of the School (p. 150) ; to the Teachers (p. 151) ; the Pupils (p. 153) ; Instruction (p. 155) ; Discipline (p. 159) ; Buildings, &c. (p. 160) ; Pecuniary Matters (p. 161) ; Additional Information (p. 163) ; Visit to the School by Dr Hough of the American Forest Administration (p. 168).

Chapter VIII. — Forests and Forest Trees^ 175 Extent of Forests in Finland (p. 175)

Section A. — Conifers, ... ... 176

Notices of Pinus sylvestris (p. 176), of Abies excelsior (p. 178), of Larix sibirica (p. 179), of Larix Europaea (p. 180), of Juniperus communis (p. 180), of Taxus baccata (p. 180).

Section B. — Broad-Leaved Trees^ ... ... ... 180

Report by Dr Ignatius (p. 180) ; Jleport by Dr Blomqvist of Betula verrucosa, B. glutinosa, B. alba, and B. nana (p, 182); Alnus incana, A. glutinosa (p. 183); Populus tremula (p. 183) ; Salix, various (p. 184) ; Quercus (p. 185), and others (p. 186). ""•'•■•

Notice of these by Dr Blomqvist (p. 188).

Chapter IX. — Disposal of Forest Products, ... ... 190 Section A. — Timber Exports, ... ... ... 190

Saw-Mills (p. 190); Exports of Cut Wood, 1864, 1865, 1870, 1872—1876 (p. 191); Exports of Timber and Firewood, 1864—1870 (p. 192) ; Exports of Forest Products, 1874, 1875, 1876 (p. 193) ; Increase of Exports (p. 193).

Section B. — Shipbuilding, ... ... ' ... ... 194

Finnish Shipping (p. 194) ; Prescribed Dimensions of Ship Timber (p. 196) ; Shipbuilding (p. 197).

CONTENTS. XV

Section C. — House Building and Carpentry ^ ... 198

Prescribed Dimensions of Building Timber and Wood (p. 199) ; Carpentry Works (p. 200) ; Coachbuilding (p. 201); Railways (p. 201).

Section D. — Industries in which Wood is made use of^ 201

Manufacture of Matches (p. 201) ; Tanning (p. 202) j Wood Paper Pulp (p. 202) ; Tar (p. 204).

Section E. — Fuel, 205

Firewood consumed in Manufactories, and in Domestic Economy (p. 205).

Delivery of Forest Products (p. 206) ; Consumption in different Districts (p. 208) ; Proportion of Forest Lands to others (p. 208).

Chapter X. — Projected Legislation in Forestry, . . . 209

Remarks on Report of Commissioners in 1883 (p. 209) ; in relation to Destruction of Forests (p. 210) ; in regard to a New Forest Law relative to Crown Forests (p. 212) ; Communal Forests (p, 213) ; Private Forests (p. 214) ; Svedjande and Forest Fires (p. 217) ; Penalties (p. 220.)

Chapter XL — Literature of Forestry, ... ... 222

Works in Swedish (p. 222) ; Works in Finnish (p. 226) j Chiefs of Administration (p. 226. )

Chapter I. — Contour of the Country, 228

Hydrographic Character (p. 228) ; Upheaval of the Country (p. 229) ; Illustrations of like Phenomena elsewhere (p. 232 ) ; Resulting Contour (p. 236.)

Section A. — Geological Formation, ... ... ... 241

Notices by Dr Ignatius (p. 242) ; by Dr Helms (p. 242.)

Section B. — Glacial Action, ... ... ... ... 244

Statement by Dr Ignatius (p. 244) ; Striae (p. 245) ; Extent of Glacier (p. 246) j Formation of Lake Beds by Flux

XVI

CONTENTS.

of Glaciers (p. 247), and of Successions of Lakes (p. 249) ; Deposit of Moraines (p. 252) ; Torrential Action at Falls of Niagara (p. 253) ; Account by M. Costa de Bastelica of deposit of Stones by Flowing Water (p, 257), and of Stones projected by Arrested Currents (p. 258) ; Force of Constant Currents (p. 259) ; and of Debacles (p. 263) ; Indications of Glacial Action affected by Oceanic Currents (p. 265.)

Introduction

With Finland and its people I have been more or less extensively acquainted for tifty years. In the autumn of 1833 1 went to Rusjsia to undertake the pastoral charge of the British and American Congregational Church iu St. Petersburg. The first evening I spent in that city was spent with a number of friends, Englishmen, Scotchmen, and Americans, who, by engaging in the sale and distribution of the sacred Scriptures and religious tracts in different languages, tlie support of a school tor the cljildren of poor foreigners, of a Dorcas Society for supplymg the poor with clothing, of a Magdalene refuge for poor outcasts, and by other lilie philanthropic work, were seeking to do good ; and in all these benevolent efforts they v/ere encouraged l)y libera] contributions from the Emperor Nicholas, from the Empress, and from other members of the Imperial Family. The effects of their Christian work were felt from the Gulf of Bothnia to the Sea of Ochotsk, from Fmlaud to Kamschatka. I was received with a brother-like welcome, and made welcome to co-operate with them to my heart's content.

B

In the prosecution of other works which devolved on me, I was enabled, with the co-operation and help of the late Dr Melartin, then Archbishop of Abo, and the encouragement of the Minister of State for the Grand Dutchy, to make arrangements for the publication of a new and corrected edition of the New Testament in Finnish, and for the supply of a copy of this at a low price, or if necessary gratuitously, to every family in Finl ind. 'i his required returns of the population in every parish in the country.

Duiing the last five-and-twent}'' years I have repeatedly spent the summer in St. Petersburg, preaching in the British and American Chapel, while one and another of my successors in the pastorate sought a few months' rehixation at home. And on almost all these occasions I visited some part or another of Finland.

With the knowledge thus acquired J consider I can best convey to another some idea ot Finland, poetically designated by her people, " The Land of a Thousand Lakes," and "The Lasi-born Daughter of the Sea," by giving a sketch of a trip which I took to Kuopia, on the Saima See, in the summer of 1882.

P)} the middle of June most of the members of the church to which I was temporarily ministering had gone to the country for the summer, leaving little to be done by me excepting on the Sabbaths; and to this trip I devoted one of the intervening weeks.

Chapter I. The Saima See

From the centre of St. Petersburg a small steamer conveys passengers to the Station of the Finnish railway. In doing so it passes through the most magnificent city-river- scenery in Europe, proccedinfr along a noble stretch of waters, deep and rapid in their flow, and ever tilling their basins, the hanks of which are lined with palaces, public buildings, gardens, and mansions, every one of which is itself a palace.

Taking departure from Vasilli Ostrof there are seen on the one bank of the river the English Quay — not a landing-place for goods and passengers from shipping, but a long street of elegrant houses, amono^st wdiich is the Chapel of the British Factory, and the House of the English Club, with a low massive wall and broad pavement, both of red granite, said to have been brought from Scotland when the city was built. Landing-stages there are for small picturesque ferry-boats, and massive landing-places for firewood brought in barges from the interior ; and there are moored barges eles^antly fitted up for the sale of fresh-water fish of various kind^, kept alive in floating tanks till selected and delivered to the purchaser ; but shipping there is none, excepting three or four richlv gilt and beautifully , shaped and equipped Imperial yachts, in keeping with the whole surroundings. Looking down the river we see laige covered ship-building sheds, in vhich not a few of the wooden frigates of a former day were built. Along the quay from which we have start(-id — the counterpart to that on the opposite bank, but bent in accoi dance with the bulging of the land, while the other is straight — are a good many barges, coasting ships, and steamers, which partly conceal, but do not do so altogether, the Mining Corps and some other like commanding buildings. A-head of the steamer a little way is the Alexander Bridge.

PassinQT underneath one of the arches a new and magniticent view bursts upon us. On the left or larboard bow are seen the Academy, the University, the Exchange ; a-head of these is the Fortress, with the lofty, beautiful spire of the Oliurch dedicated to St. Peter and St. Paul, in the crypt of which are the tombs of the Emperors who have reigned since the founding of the city ; and not far off, but not seen from the steamer, is the hut inhabited by Peter, while the palace afterwards inhabited by him and his successors, and the city which bears his name, were a-building.

Beyond the Exchange and the Fortress flows one of the numerous embouchures of the river designated the Little Neva, in contradistinction to the main stream, the Great Neva, separating Vasilli Ostrof from the city or the mainland, or what may be reckoned such. Beyond the Fortress is another embouchure, the Nevka, which afterwards bifurcates into the Great Nevka and the Little Nevka. A little above the branching otf of the Nevl<a — on what may be described as a continuation of the right bank of the Nevka trending towards the middle of tfie main stream, the Neva — is a long stretch of white buiklings, the School of Medicine with hospitals and other adjuncts; and in apparent continuation to these, but at an obtuse angle with the line of their frontage, is Nicholai Bridge, concealed from sight by the somewhat concave opposite bank of the Neva. The breadth of the river throughout the stretch from the Exchange, at which the Little Neva takes its departure, to the School of Medicine on the inclination of the bank of the Neva, the prolongation of which is the right bank of the Nevka, is magnificent. Tliere are, besides the permanent bridges mentioned, tw(> Pontoon Bridges, which serve to vary the scene.

In keeping with all that is to be seen on the larboard bow of the steamer is all that is to be seen on the starboard bow as she advances up the river. Eiuergiiig from the arch of the first bridge, it is found that what has been seen of the English Quay is little more than half of the entire length of that.

'J" he upper half, not less imposing than that below, terminates in the Senate-House, with its frontage at right angles to the quay; and in continuation with that frontage, separated only by a lofty arch spanning the Galernoy Street, but forming part of the facade of the building in its entirety, is the House of Assembly of the Holy Synod, with pertaining offices, the frontage of which is the counterpart to that of the Senate-House.

From these extend through what was formerly known as the St. Isaac's Plain, the Alexandra Gardens, enclosed in which, in the corner nearest to the Senate-House, is thtj famous equestrian statue of Peter the Great on an immense orranite boulder. Beyond this, at right angles to the Senate-House, and that of the Holy Synod, is St. Isaac's Church.

Parallel to the river is the Admiralty, with a tapering spire covered with gold ; and beyond it, at the commencement of what, on the same principle which procured for the English Quay its name, has been named the Russian Quay, is the Winter Palace, and the Hermitage, both of th'jm opposite to the origin of the Little Neva, and looking out upon the stretch of river spoken of as magnificent in its breadth. In passing the wide space between the Admiralty and the Winter Palace, a glimpse may have been obtained of the summit, at least, of a lofty monolith, surmounted by an angel holding a cross, dedicated to the memory of Alexander I. Amongst the palatal mansions beyond the Hermitage are the Marble Palace, the Mansion of one of the Grand Dukes, and the British Embassy. Amongst open spaces are the Champ de Mars, with a statue of Kutusotf ; and the Summer Gardens, the avenues of which are lined with statuary, and within sight from them is the Nicholai Bridge.

t THE FOREST LA.NDS OF FINLAND.

It is throughout the most magnificent city-river-scenery I have seen ; nor is it devoid of historical associations. The Fortress, like the Tower of London, is the State prison of the metropolis.

In the Winter Palace, Catherine II., known as Catherine the Great, held her Court. It faces St. Isaac's Plain, the scene of the military insurrection which occurred when Nicholfis ascended the throne ; and adjacent to it, standing on the plain, is Alexander's Pillar, of which mention has been made, a monolith erected and dedicated to the memory of Alexander I.

At the main entrance to the Summer Gardens is a large elegant shrine, with obratzes or sacred pictures, and everburning lamps, erected on a spot on which Alexander II. was fired at by an assassin.

In an upper corner of the Winter Gardens stands the first palace of Peter the Great, to which he removed from the hut in which he lived while it was being built.

Beyond, but within sight of these, is the noble bridge, leading to what is called the Finnish side, and within a quarter of a mile from this bridge is the station, the terminal station of the Finnish railway, a little way from the landing place. From this the passenger must walk ; but by tramway car or other conveyance the station may be reached from almost any part of the city.

For several miles the Finnish railway passes on the one side a far-stretching successions of villas, the summer residences of hundreds, I may venture to say of thousands, of the well-to-do inhabitants of St. Petersburg; on the other it passes stretches of forests of birch and pine, and of level land strewn with boulders of various bulk; and on both sides, interspersed with these are cabbage-gardens and fields of strawberries. Beyond these, the villas and gardens give place to the dominating forests and boulderstrewn land, upon which are seen patches of rye, and of potatoes, and oats.

A journey of about four hours brings the traveller to Wyborg, a town of some lo,OUO or 14,000 inhabitants, seventy-five miles distant from the capital. I visited Wyborg in 18(j0, and returning now after an interval of two-and-twenty years, it appeared to me greatly improved.

According to Murray : ' The port of Wyborg is of great extent, is enclosed by two large islands, which act as breakwaters. The town is about eigfht miles from the harbour, at the end of a large bay. There are there ruins of a castle built in 1293 by the brave Torkel Kuntian, one of the most illustrious Swedes mentioned in history. It was destroyed by fire; the upper stories are roofless, the lower ones are used as a prison. The old fortifications, of which only a rampart remains, date from the fifteenth century. In 1710 the place was besieged by Peter the Great, and taken after a hard struggle of several weeks. The peace of 1721 put the Tzar in definite possession, and ir>.174!3 the treaty of Abo enlarged still further the conquest.'

From Wyborg, the traveller may proceed either by land or by canal to the Saima Lake, visiting by the way in either case, if so disposed, the Fall^i of Imatra. by which the waters of that inland sea find their way to Lake Ladoga, and thence by the Neva to the Baltic and the ocean beyond.

The Saima Lake, according to one more restricted application of the name, is some 60 veists, or 40 miles, long, and 30 versts, or 20 miles, broad; according to another more extended application of the name, the length, in the direction west-south-west and east-south-east, is said to be 130 Versts, or upwards of 8lj miles, and the breadth from north to south is 120 versts, or 80 miles. But in either case it is applied to what is only the lower part of an immense inland expanse of water, extending some 400 versts, or 235 miles, in length, and covering an area of some 6000 square versts, or 4000 square miles. The dififereuce