Elements of physiology : including physiological anatomy

Front matter

iHb

LIBRARY

.OF THE

Preface

The present volume owes its origin to a desire on the part of the Publisher, that an elementary treatise on Physiology should be added to the series of »admirable Students' Manuals, on the various departments of Medical Science, which he had previously issued.

In carrying this desire into execution, the Author has endeavoured to avoid inflicting upon the class for whose use the Treatise is especially intended, the injury of placing in their hands such a superficial and imperfect sketch of the science, as, whilst affording them but a limited amount of knowledge of its facts, should leave them very ill-informed as to its general doctrines. His object has rather been to convey to the Student as clear an idea as possible of those Principles of Physiology which are based on the broadest and most satisfactory foundation, and to point out the mode in which these principles are applied to the explanation of the . phenomena presented by the living actions of the Human body. In this manner has the Author desired to prepare him for that more detailed study of the latter, which becomes necessary when Physiology is pursued (as it ought to be) in connexion with the changes produced in the living body by Morbific and Remedial Agents, and is thus taken as a guide in the study of the causes, prevention, and treatment of Disease — which should be the primary object of attention with every one who undertakes the Practice of his Profession.

Although this Manual combines in some degree the scope of the Author's " Principles of Physiology, General and Comparative," and of his "Principles of Human Physiology," yet it cannot be regarded as a mere abridgment of them, having been written for the most part with very little reference to them, and with every desire to make it complete in itself. As the matter of which these volumes are composed is itself condensed to the utmost practicable degree, it is manifestly impossible that the present Manual should contain more than a mere* outline of the subjects of which they treat. To them, therefore, he

Vlll PREFACE.

would refer such of its readers, as may desire further information upon various topics which are here only slightly touched upon ; and in them, also, will be found references to various original authorities, the introduction of which would be incompatible with the limited scope of a treatise like the present.

The Author has only to add, that he feels most grateful for the kind appreciation which this Manual has experienced ; and that in the preparation of the present Edition, he has used his best endeavours to render it still more worthy of a favourable reception. The whole treatise has been subjected to a most careful revision ; many statements which the advance of science has shown to be doubtful or erroneous, have been omitted or corrected; and a considerable amount of, new matter has been introduced. Of the First, Eleventh, and Twelfth Chapters, more especially, a considerable proportion has been entirely rewritten ; and the Author ventures to believe that the doctrines which they contain will enable such as may master them to obtain a clearer comprehension of the facts of Physiological Science, than they could previously have acquired.

Book I. General Physiology

I. On the natuke and objects of the Science of Physiology

1. General Characters of Organized Structures

2. Distinctive Characters of Vital Actions

3. Of the Forces concerned in the production of Vital Phenomena

4. Of Degeneration and Death .....

5. General Summary ......

II. Of the Exteknal Conditions of Vital Activity .

1. Of light, as a Condition of Vital Activity

2. Of Heat, as a Condition of Vital Activity

3. Of Electricity, as a Condition of Vital Activity .

III. Of the Elementary Parts of Animal Structures .

1. Of the Primary Components of the Animal Fabric .

PAQE.

18 25 44 53 56

61 71 94 97

107 119 127

2. Of the Simple Fibrous Tissues

3. Of the Basement or Primary Membrane

4. Of Simple Isolated Cells, employed in the Organic Functions . 130

5. Of cells connected together, as permanent constituents of the Tissues 154

6. Of Cells coalesced into Tubes, with Secondary Deposit . . 196

Book II. , Special Physiology

IV. Of Food, and the Digestive Process ..... 286

1. Sources of the Demand for Aliment .... 286

2. Of the Digestive Apparatus, and its Actions in general . . 252

3. Of the Movements of the Alimentary Canal . . . 257

4. Of the Secretions poured into the Alimentary Canal, and of the

Changes which they eflFect in its contents . . . 264

5. Of Hunger, Satiety, and Thirst . . . .274

V. Of Absorption and Sanguification ..... 277

1. Of Absorption from the Digestive Cavity . . . 277

2. Of the Passage of Chyle along the Lacteals, and its admixture

with the Lymph collected from the General System . . 281 8. Of the Spleen, and other Glandular appendages to the Lymphatic

4. Of the Composition and properties of the Chyle and Lymph . 292

5. Of Absorption from the External and Pulmonary Surfaces . 296

6. Of the Composition and Properties of the Blood . . .297

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAPTER.

VI. Of the Circulation of the Blood ....

1. Nature and Objects of the Circulation of Nutrient Fluid

2. Diflferent forms of the Circulating Apparatus .

3. Action of the Heart .... • 4. Movement of the Blood in the Arteries .

5. Movement of the Blood in the Capillaries .

6. Movement of Blood in the Veins

VII. Op Nutrition .....

1. Selecting Power of Individual Parts

2. Varying Activity of the Nutritive Processes

3. Of Death, or Cessation of Nutrition

4. Disordered Conditions of the Nutritive Processes

VIII. Of Kespiration ......

1. Essential Nature and Conditions of the Respiratory Process

2. Different forms of the Respiratory apparatus in the lower Animals

3. Mechanism of Respiration in Mammalia, and in Man .

4. Chemical Phenomena of Respiration

5. Effects of Insufficiency, or Suspension, of the Aerating Process

IX. Of Secretion . . . .

1. Of the Secreting process in general, and of the Instruments by

which it is effected

2. Of the Liver and the Bile

3. Of the Kidneys, and the Urine

4. Of the Cutaneous and Intestinal Glandulae

5. General Summary of the Excreting Processes

X. Of the Development of Light, Heat, and Electricity, in the Animal Body ........

XL Generation and Development

1. General View of the Nature of the Process

2. Action of the Male .

3. Action of the Female

XII. Of the Nervous System .

1. General view of the operations, of which the Nervous System is

the Instrument ......

2. Comparative Structure and Actions of the Nervous System

3. Functions of the Spinal Cord and its Nerves

4. Functions of the Medulla Oblongata

5. Functions of the Sensory Ganglia

6. Functions of the Cerebellum 9. Functions of the Cerebrum 8. Functions of the Sympathetic System

XIII. Of Sensation, General and Special .

1. Of Sensation in general

2. Of the Sense of Touch .

3. Of the Sense of Taste

4. Of the Sense of Smell . . : 6. Of the Sense of Hearing 6. Of the Sense of Sight .

XIV. Of the Voice and Speech

LIST OF WOOD ENGRAVINGS.

1. Simple isolated Cells, containing reproductive molecules

2. Fibrous structure of exudation-membrane ; after Gerber

3. Fibrous membrane lining egg-shell (original)

4. White fibrous tissue of areolar tissue and tendon ; after Gerber .

5. White fibrous tissue of ligament ; after Gerber

6. Yellow fibrous tissue of ligamentum nuchee ; after Gerber

7. Development of fibres from cells ; after Lebert

8. Ideal Section of a Joint ......

y. Capillary vessels of Skin ; after Berres

10. Capillary vessels of Intestinal villi ; after Berres .

11. Capillary vessels around orifices of Mucous follicles ; after Berres

12. Capillary vessels around follicles of Parotid Gland ; ditto

13. Distribution of Sensory nerves in Skin ; after Gerber

14. Primary membrane, with germinal spots ; after Goodsir .

15. Primary membrane, showing component cells ; after Goodsir

16. Cells from Chorda Dorsalis of Lamprey, after Quekett

17. Multiplication of Cartilage-cells by duplication; after Leidy

18. Parent-cells, with contained secondary cells, of cancerous structure; after

19. Cells from fluid of Herpes ; after Addison ....

20. Oblique section of Epidermis ; after Henle ....

21. Epidermic cells from Conjunctiva ; after Gerber

22. Portion of Choroid-coat, showing pigment cells ; ditto.

23. Separate Pigment-cells ; after Mandl .....

24. Detached epithelium-cells from mucous membrane of mouth ; after Lebert

25. Pavement-epithelium from bronchial tubes : after Lebert

26. Layer of cylindrical epithelium, with cilia ; after Henle .

27. Follicles from liver of Crab, with contained secreting cells ; after Goodsir

28. Follicles of Mammary gland, with contained secreting cells ; after Lebert

29. Secreting Cells of Human Liver .....

30. Formation of Spermatozoa within cells ; after Wagner

31. Diagram of Intestinal Mucous membrane, in intervals of digestion; after

32. Extremity of Placental villus ; after Goodsir . . . ,

33. Progressive stages of cell-growth, in Shell-membrane (original)

34. Progressive stages of coalescence of cells, in Shell-membrane (original)

35. Fusiform tissue of plastic exudations ; after Lebert

36. Areolar and Adipose tissue ; after Mandl ....

37. Capillary network around Fat-cells : after Berres

38. Cartilage of Mouse's-ear; after Quekett ....

39. Section of Cartilage ; after Schwann .....

40. Distribution of vessels on surface of Cartilage ; after Toynbee

41. Nutrient vessels of Cornea; after Toynbee ....

42. Shell of Echinus (original) ......

43. Sections of Shell of Pinna (original) ....

44. Tubular shell-structure from Anomia (original)

45. Cancellated structure at extremity of Femur ; after Toynbee . . 173 xu

LIST OF WOOD ENGRAVINGS.

46. Lacunas of Osseous substance ; after Mandl

47. Section of Bony Scale of Lepidosteus (original) .

48. Network of Haversian canals, from vertical section of Tibia ; after Mandl

49. Transverse section of long bone; after Wilson 60. Section of Cartilage, near seat of Ossification; after Wilson

51, Section of Cartilage, at the seat of Ossification ; after Wilson

52. Vessels of Dental Papilla ; after Berres 63. Oblique Section of Dentine ; after Owen

54. Vertical Section of human molar tooth ; after Nasmyth

55. Development of Teeth ; after Goodsir 66. Structure of Hair of Musk-deer and Sable (original)

57. Structure of the Human Hair; after Wilson

58. Fasciculus of striated Muscular fibre ; after Mandl . 69. Non-striated Muscular fibres ; after Bowman

60. Striated Muscular fibre separating into fibrillte

61. Muscular fibre cleaving into disks; after Bowman

62. Transverse section of muscular fibres ; after Bowman

63. Structure of ultimate fibrillse of striated fibre (original) .

64. Nucleated fibres from non-striated muscle ; after Wilson

65. Fusiform contractile cells ; after Kolliker . • .

66. Nuclei in striated muscular fibres of foetus ; after Bowman

67. Capillaries of muscle ; after Berres

68. Distribution of nerves in Muscle ; after Burdach

69. Components of gray substance of brain ; after Purkinje .

70. Capillaries of Nervous centres ; after Berres .

71. Structure of Ganglion of Sympathetic; after Valentin

72. Distribution of Sensory nerves in lip ;^after Gerber .

73. Capillaries at margin of lips ; after Berres

74. Section of Human Stomach .....

75. Mucous coat of small intestine, showing Villi, and orifices of follicles ; after

76. Peyerian glandula ; after Boehm ....

77. Stomach of Sheep .......

78. Section of Stomach of Sheep, showing derai-canal ; after Flourens

79. Lobule of Parotid Gland ; after Wagner ....

80. Gastric glandulse after Wagner ....

81. Orifices of Gastric tubuli ; after Boyd ....

82. Distribution of Capillaries in Intestinal Villus ; after Berres

83. Commencement of Lacteal in Intestinal Villus ; after Krause

84. Diagram of Lymphatic gland ; after Goodsir .

85. Epithelial cells of intra-glandular Lymphatic ; after Goodsir

86. Course of Thoracic duct .....

87. Appearance of inflamed Blood; after Addison

88. Vascular area of Fowl's egg ; after Wagner .

89. Diagram of the Circulation in Fish

90. Diagram of the Circulation in Reptile .

91. Diagram of complete Double Circulation.

92. Anatomy of Human Heart and Lungs

93. Capillaries of Nervous centres, after Berres

94. Capillaries of Glandular follicles ; after Berres

95. Capillaries of Conjunctival membrane: after Berres

96. Capillaries of Choroid coat ; after Berres

97. Capillaries around orifices of mucous follicles; after Berres

98. Capillaries in Skin of finger ; after Berres

99. Capillaries in fungiform papilla of Tongue ; after Berres.

100. Doris, showing branchial tufts ; after Alder and Hancock

101. One of the arborescent processes of gills of Poris; ditto

102. Respiratory apparatus of Insects ....

103. Diagram of diflFerent forms of Respiratory Apparatus (original)

104. Capillaries of Gill of Eel (original) ....

105. Section of Lung of Turtle; after Boj anus

106. Capillaries of Human Lung (original)

107. Simple glandular follicles ; after Miiller .

108. Embryonic development of Liver ; after MUller

LIST OF WOOD ENGRAVINGS.

xm

FIG.

144. 145.

PA0E.

Rudimentary Pancreas, from Cod ; after Miiller Mammary Gland of Ornithorhyncus ; after Miiller . Meibomian Glands ; after Miiller .....

Portion of Cowper's Gland ; after Miiller

Lobule of Lachrymal Gland ; after Miiller

Hepatic Follicles from Crab ; after Goodsir .

Ultimate follicles from Mammary gland ; after Lebert .

Surface of Lobule of Liver of Squilla ; after Miiller

Interior of Lobule of Liver of Squilla ; after Miiller

Liver of Tadpole ; after Miiller . . • •

Distribution of Blood-vessels in Lobules of Liver ; after Kiernan

Connexion of Lobules of Liver with Hepatic vein ; ditto

Distribution of Hepatic ducts, around Lobules of Liver ; after Kiernan

Secreting Cells of Liver ......

Development of Kidney, in embryo of Lizard ; after Miiller . Kidney of foetal Boa ; after Miiller . . . .•

Portion of Kidney of Coluber ; after Miiller ....

Fasciculus of tubuli uriuiferi of Bird ; after Miiller

Section of Kidney .......

Section of portions of Kidney, slightly magnified ; after Wagner

Distribution of vessels in Kidney ; after Bowman

Vertical section of Skin ; after Wilson ....

Hepatic Cells gorged with Fat ; after Bowman

Various stages of development of Haematococcus binalis ; after Hassal Successive stages of development of simpler Algae ; after Kiitzing . Diagram representing the three principal forms of the Generative process in

Plants (original) .......

Successive stages of Segmentation of the vitellus of Ascaris ; after Bagge Anatomy of the Testis . . . . . .

The Uterus and its appendages ......

Successive stages of segmentation of Mammalian vitellus ; after Coste Formation of the Mulberry mass ; after Coste ....

Plan of Early Uterine Ovum ; .after Wagner ....

Germ and surrounding parts ; after Coste ....

Vascular Area of Fowl's Egg ; after Wagner ....

Diagram of Ovum, at commencement of separation of digestive cavity ; after

Diagram of Ovum, showing the formation of the Amnion ; after Wagner Diagram of Human Ovum, in second month, showing the Allantois ; after

Diagram of the Circulation in the Ovum at the commencement of the forma

tion of the placenta ; after Coste .....

Extremity of Placental Villus ; after Goodsir External membrane and cells of placental villus ; after Goodsir Diagram illustrating the arrangement of the placental decidua ; after Goodsir Plan of the Foetal Circulation . . . . .

Termination of portion of milk-duct in follicles ; after Sir A. Cooper Portion of the Ganglionic tract of Polydesmus ; after Newport Human embryo at sixth week ; after Wagner

Dissection of the Medulla Oblongata, showing the connexions of its tracts ; after Solly (altered) ....

Diagram of the relations of the Cerebrum to the Sensory Ganglia, as horizontal section (original) ....

Diagram of the relations of the several parts of the Encephalon, as vertical section (original) ....

Capillary network at margin of Lips ; after Berres

Distribution of tactile nerves in Skin ; after Gerber .

Capillaries of fungiform papilla of Tongue ; after Berres

Distribution of Olfactory nerve ; after Wilson

Diagram of the Auditory apparatus; after Wilson

Refraction of rays of light through convex lens

Formation of images in eye ....

Capillary network of Retina ; after Berres

Structure of the Larynx ; after Willis several

EXPLANATION OF PLATE L

The Figures in this Plate represent the Cells floating in the various animal fluids ; and they are all, with the exception of Figs. 4 and 5, copied from the representations given by M. Donn^ in his "Atlas de I'Anatomie Microscopique." These representations are transcripts of Daguerreotype pictures, obtained from the objects, by a solar microscope, with a magnifying power of 400 diameters.

Fig. 1. Red Corpuscles of Human Blood, viewed by their flattened surfaces (§ 215).

Fig. 2. Red Corpuscles of Human Blood, adherent by their flattened surfaces, so as to form rolls ; — at a, the entire surfaces are adherent ; at 6, their surfaces adhere only in part.

Fig. 3. Red Corpuscles of Human Blood, exhibiting the granulated appearance which they frequently present, a short time after being withdrawn from the vessels.

Fig. 4. Colourless Corpuscles of Human Blood (| 214).

Fig. 6. The same, enlarged by imbibition of water.

Fig. 6. Red Corpuscles of Frog's Blood (§ 215).

Fig. 7. The same, treated with dilute acetic acid ; the first effect of which is to render the nucleus more distinct, as at 5 ; after which the outer vesicle becomes more transparent, and its solution commences, as at a.

Fig. 8. The same, treated with water ; at a is seen a corpuscle nearly unaltered, except in having the nucleus more sharply defined ; at b, others which have become more spherical, under the more prolonged action of water ; at c, the nucleus is quitting the centre, and approaching the circumference, of the disk ; at d it is almost freeing itself from the envelope ; and at e it has completely

Fig. 9. Globules of Mucus, newly secreted (§ 237).

Fig. 10. The same, acted on by acetic acid.

Fig. 11. Globules of Pus, from a phlegmonous abscess (^ 637).

Fig. 12. The same, acted on by acetic acid.

FLATE 1 m fc^

PLATE 21

SinrJairs iith. /^'2-

EXPLANATION OF PLATE IL

The Figures in this Plate represent the principal forms of the Nervous Centres in different classes of animals. The 1st is copied from a Memoir by M. Blanchard ; the 2d, 3d, and 4th, from Mr. Newport's delineations ; the 5th to the 13th from the work of M. Guillot on the Comparative Anatomy of the Encephalon in the different classes of Vertebrata ; and the last two from the work of M. Leuret on the same subject.

Fig. 1. Nervous System of Solen; a, a, cephalic ganglia, connected together by a transverse band passing over the (Esophagus, and connected with the other ganglia by cords of communication ; b, pedal ganglion, the branches of which are distributed to the powerful muscular foot ; c, branchial ganglion, the branches of which proceed to the gills d, d, the siphons e, e, and other parts. On some of these branches, minute ganglia are seen ; as also at/, /, on the trunks that pass forwards from the cephalic ganglia (^ 852).

Fig. 2. Nervous System of the Larva of Sphinx ligustri; a, cephalic ganglia ; 1-12, ganglia of the ventral cord (§ 856).

Fig. 3. Thoracic portion of the Nervous System of the Pupa of Sphinx ligustri; a, 6, c, three ganglia of the ventral cord ; d^ d, their connecting trunks ; e, e, respiratory ganglia (^ 862).

Fig. 4. Anterior portion of the Nervous System of the Imago of Sphinx ligustri; a, cephalic ganglia; b, b, eyes ; c, anterior median ganglion, and d, d, posterior lateral ganglia of stomato-gastric system ; g, /, large ganglionic masses in the thorax, giving origin to the nerves of the legs and wings (§ 863).

Fig. 5. Brain of the Perch, seen from above (g 869).

Fig. 6. The same, as seen from below.

Fig. 7. Interior of the, same, as displayed by a vertical section.

The following references are common to the three preceding, and to the succeeding figures.

a, «, Olfactory lobes or ganglia.

b, b, Cerebral ganglia or Hemispheres.

c, c, Optic lobes.

d, Cerebellum.

e, Spinal Cord. /, Pineal gland.

g, Lobi inferiores (their precise character not determined). h, Pituitary body. i, Optic Nerves.

XVI EXPLANATION OF PLATE II.

Fig. 8. Brain of the Common Lizard, seen from above (§ 871).

Fig. 9. The same, as seen from below.

Fig. 10. The same, as displayed by a vertical section.

Fig. 11. Brain of the Common Goose, as seen from above (§ 872).

Fig. 12. The same, as seen from below.

Fig. 13. The same, as displayed by a vertical section.

Fig. 14. Brain of the Sheep, viewed sideways (| 873).

Fig. 15. The same, as displayed by a vertical section.

In addition to the parts indicated by the preceding references, we have here to notice ; — k, the corpus callosum ; I, the septum lucidum ; and m, the Pons Varolii.

BOOK I.

GENEKAL PHYSIOLOGY.