Elements of chemistry including the recent discoveries and doctrines of the science... With notes and recommendations

Front matter

OF THE

U N I VERS ITY or ILLI NOIS

PRESENTED 5Y Luther L. Gordon Rushville, Illinois 1938

Preface

TO

THE THIRD EDITION.

The remarks with which the second edition of these Elements was prefaced, may with equal propriety be applied to the present. Every part of the Treatise has been carefully revised; — redundancies have been retrenched, — inaccuracies, as far as possible^ corrected, — obscurities, it is hoped, removed, — and deficiencies supplied. It has been attempted, by the careful perusal of original essays, to give the latest and most correct information in every department of the Science. On the writings of Berzelius, especially on his Lehrbuch der Chemie, I have drawn more freely than in the former editions ; partly from having become better acquainted with the work itself, and partly because my own experience, in enabling me more fully to appreciate the accuracy of its author, has induced me to attach a higher interest to his observations.

The most material change in the present edition will be found in the article on Galvanism, in the theory of which some modification has become necessary. An outline of tlie views of Berzelius on the Haloid and Sulfiho-salts has also been introduced. Some changes have been made, of a nature not to require particular mention, and too numerous to admit of it. The plan of the work remains precisely the same as it was explained in the original preface, The size of the volume has, indeed, been somewhat enlarged; but the additions, which were required by the state of the science, will render the work a safer and a more useful gn.icje fo the student of Chemistry.

Upper Gower^btreet, October 1, 1830.

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ADVERTISEMENT

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THE AMERICAN EDITOR.

The American Editor, in superintending a new impression of Dr. Turner’s Elements, from the third London edition, enlarged and revised by the Author, has restricted himself, as on the former occasion, to the task of revising the text, and supplying a few notes. Several additional inaccuracies have been detected in the original text, and some also in the matter which has been newly introduced by the Author.

The notes of the Editor are distinguished by the letter B. A few have been added to those which appeared im the former edition ; and about an equal number have been omitted, chiefly relating to inaccuracies and omissions, which have since been either corrected or supplied by the Author himself. These notes will be found, for the most part, explanatory or supplementary, though occasionally critical. It has, however, been rarely necessary to differ from the Author, who has certainly exhibited, in the composition of his treatise, the qualities of an accurate Chemist, and neat and perspicuous writer.

Philabbiphia, December 1831,

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CON TEN T S.

IifTRODUCTiON . Page 13

Part I. Imponderable Substances

Sect* I.— Caloric, * 19

Communicationof Caloric, 20 Radiation, 23

Cooling“ of Bodies, 28

Effects of Caloric, 28

Expansion, 29

Thermometer, 37

Liquefaction, 50

Vaporization, 56

Ebullition, 57

Evaijoration, 60

Constitution of Gases

Avith respect to Caloric, 67 Sources of Caloric, 68

Sect* II. — Light, 68

Sect* III. — Electricity, 73

Se<^* IV.— Galvanism, 84

Part II. Inorganic Chemistry

PRELIMINARY REMARKS, 106

Sect* I.— Affinity, 109

Changes that accompany

Chemical Action, 113

Circumstances that modify and influence the Operation of Affinity, 114 Measure of Affinity, 121

Sect* II.— Proportions in Avliich Bodies unite, and the Laws of Combination, 121 Atomic Theory of Mr.

Theory of Volumes, 132

Theory of Berzelius, 137

Sect* III.— Oxygen, 140

Theory of Combustion, 143 Sect* IV.— Hydrogen,— Water, 146

Deutoxide of Hydrogen, 151 Sect* V.— Nitrogen, 154

Atmosphere, 155

Compounds of Nitrogen and Oxygen.— Protoxide, 163

Deutoxide of Nitrogen, 165

Hyponitrous Acid, 168

Nitrous Acid, 168

Sect. VI.— Carbon, 174

Carbonic Oxide Gas, Sect* VIL— Sulphur,

Compounds of Sulphur and Oxygen.— Sulpliurous Acid, 184

Hyposulphurous Acid, 189

Hyposulphuric Acid, 190

Sect* Vill.— Phosphorus, I9l

Compounds of Phosphorus and Oxygen.—Phosphoric Acid, 193

Phosi)horous Acid, 196 Hypophosphorous Acid. 197 Oxides of Phosphorus, 198 Sect* IX.— Boron, 198

Boracic Acid, 199

Sect* X.— Selenium, 200

Oxide of Selenium, 201

Selenious and Selenie

Acids, 201

Sect* Xl.-Chlorine, 203

Muriatic Acid, 206

Compounds of Chlorine

and Oxygen, 210

Protoxide of Chlorine, 211 Peroxide of Chlorine, 211 Chloric Acid, 212

Perchloric Acid, 213

Chloride of Nitrogen, 213 Compounds of Chlorine and Carbon, 214

Chloride of Sulphur, 215 Chlorides of Phosidiorus, 216 Chlorocarbonic Acid, 216 Chloride of Boron, 217

Nature of Chlorine, 217 Sect. Xll.-Iodine, 220

Hydriodic Acid, 221

Iodic Acid, 223

lodous Acid, 224

Chloriodic Acid, 225

X

Contents

Iodide of Nitrogen, 225

Sect, XIII. — Bromine, 226

Hydrobromic Acid, 229

Part III. Organic Chemistry

VEGETABLE CHEMISTRY, 455

S€>'t. I. — Vegetable Acids, 457

Acetic Acid and its Salts, 457 Oxalic Acid and its Salts, 461

Tartaric Acid and its Salts, 464 Citric Acid and its Salts, 467 Malic Acid and its S alts, 468 Benzoic Acid and its Salts, 469 Gallic Acid and its Salts, 470 Succinic Acid and its Salts, 471 Camphoric Acid, 471

Saccholactic, Moroxylic, Hydrocyanic, Rheumic, Boletic, Igasuric, and Mellitic Acids, 472

Suberic, Zumic, Kinic, Meconic, Pectic, Carbazotic, and Indigotic Acids. 473

Sect. II.— Vegetable Alkalies, 475

Morphia.— Narcotine, 476

Cinchonia and Quinia, 479

Strychnia and Brucia, 480

Veratria, Emetia, Picrotoxia, Solania, Delphia, &c. 481

Sect. III.— Substances which, in relation to Oxygen, contain an excess of Hydrogen, 484

Fixed Oils,— Elaine and

Stearine, 484

Volatile Oils, 485

Camphor, 486

Resins, 487

Amber, 48 S

Balsams, Gum-resins,

Caoutchouc, 489

Sulphuric Ether, 494

Nitrous Ether, 497

Acetic, Muriatic, and Hydriodic Ethers, 497

Bituminous substances, 498

Naphtha. 498

Petroleum, Asphaltum, Mineral Pitch, Retinasphaltum, Coal, 499

Sect, IV.— Substances, the Oxygen and Hydrogen of which are in exact proportion for forming water, 501

Sugar, Molasses, Honey, Manna, 501

Starch— Amidine, Hordein, 503

Gum — Mucilage, 505

Lignin or Woody Fibre.

Pyroxylic and Pyroacetic spirit, 506

Seet. V.— Substances which, so far as is known, do not belong to either of the preceding Sections, 507

Colouring Matter — Dyes, 507

Tannin— Artificial Tannin, 513 Vegetable Albumen, 514

Gluten— Gliadine, Zymome, 515 Yeast, 515

Asparagin, Rassorin, Caffein, Cathartin, Fungin, Suberin, Ulmin, Lupulin, Inulin, Medullin,

CONTENTS xli

Pollenin, Piperin, Olivile, Sarcocoll, &c. 516

Sect* VI.— Spontaneous changes of

Vegetable Matter, 520

Saccharine Fermentation, 520 Vinous Fermentation, 521

Acetous Fermentation, 523

Putrefactive Fermentation, 524

Sect. VII.— Chemical Phenomena of Germination and Vegetation, 526

Germination, 526

Growth of Plants, 5J8

Food of Plants, 530

animal CHEMISTHY. 532

Proximate Animal Principles, 532

Sect. I.— Substances which are neither acid nor oleaginous, 533

Fibrin, 533

Albumen, 534

Gelatin, 536

Urea, 537

Sugar of Milk, and Sugar of Diabetes, 539

II. —Animal Acids, 539

Uric Acid and its Salts, 539

Purpuric Acid, 541

Erythric and Rosacic Acids— Lateritious Sediment, 541

Hipp uric. Formic, Lactic, and Amniotic Acids, 542

Sect. III.— Oleaginous substances, 543

Spermaceti, 545

Adipocire, Cholesterine, 546

Ambergris, 547

MORE COMPLEX ANIMAL SUB- STANCES, AND SOME FUNC- TIONS OF ANIMAL BODIES, 547

Sect. L— Blood, 547

Respiration, 552

Sect, II.— Secreted Fluids subservient

to Digestion, 559

Saliva, 559

Pancreatic and Gastric Juices, 559

Bile and Biliary Concretions, 561 Sect. III.— Chyle, Milk, Eggs, 563

Sect, IV.— Liquids of Serous and Mucous Surfaces, and Purulent Matter, 567

Sect, V . — Urine and Urinary Concretions, 509

Veef. VI.— Solid parts of Animals;

Bones, Horn, Muscle, &c. 576 Sect. VII.— Putrefaction, 578

Part IV. Analytical Chemistry

Sect. I.— Analysis of Mixed Gases, 580 Sect. II.— Analysis of Minerals, 584

Sect, III.— Analysis of Mineral Waters, 589 Composition of Mineral

Waters. 593

Appendix

Table of Chemical Equivalents or

Atomic Weights, 597

of the Elastic Force of Aqueous Vapour, 603

of the Elastic Force of the Vapour of Alcohol,&c. 606

of the strength of Sulphuric Acid, 607

of the strength of Nitric Acid, 608 of the strength of Alcohol 609 of Specific Gravities, indicated by Baum^’s Hydrometer, 610

INDEX, 611

INTRODUCTION,

Material substances are endowed with two kinds of properties, physical and chemical; and the study of the phenomena occasioned by them has given rise to two corresponding branches of knowledge, Natural Philosophy and Chemistry,

The physical properties are either general or secondar3% The general are so called because they are common to all bodies; the secondary, from being observable in some substances only. Among the general may be enumerated extension, impenetrability, mobility, extreme divisibility, gravitation, porosity, and indestructibility.

Extension is the property of occupying a certain portion of space. A substance is said to be extended when it possesses length, breadth, and thickness. By impenetrahility is meant that no two portions of matter can occupy the same space at the same moment. Every thing that possesses extension and impenetrability is matter.

Matter, though susceptible of motion, has no power either to move itself, or to arrest its own progress when an impulse is once communicated to it. This indifference to rest or motion has been expressed by the term vis inertige, as if it depended on some specific force resident in matter; but it may with greater propriety be regarded as a negative character, in consequence of wdiich, matter is wholly given up to the operation of the various forces which are constantly acting upon it.

Matter is divisible to an extreme degree of minuteness. A grain f gold may be so extended by hammering that it will cover 50 square inches of surface, and contain two millions of visible points; yet the gold which covers the silver wire, used in making gold lace, is spread over a surface twelve times as great. (Nicholson’s Introduction to Natural Philosophy, vol, i.) A grain of ‘iron, dissolved in nitro-muriatic acid, and mixed with 3137 pints of water, will be diffused through the whole mass, and by means of the ferrocyanate of potassa, which strikdb a uniform blue tint, some portion of iron may be detected in every part of the liquid. This experiment proves the grain of iron to have been divided into rather more than 24 millions of parts; and if the same quantity of iron were still further diluted, its diffusion though the whole liquid might be proved by concentrating any portion of it by evaporation, and detecting the metal by its appropriate tests.

A keen controversy existed at one time concerning the divisibility of matter; some philosophers affirming it to be infinitely divisible, wffiile others maintained an opposite opinion. Owing to the imperfection of our senses the question cannot be determined by direct experiment, because matter certainly continues to be divisible long after it has ceased to be an object of sense. The decision, if effected at all, can only be accomplished by indirect means. In favour of the former view it was urged, that to whatever degree matter is divided, it may still be conceived, in possessing extension, to be divisible into two parts; and the minuteness to which matter may actually be reduced, gave additional

Introduction

weight to this argument. Plausible, however, as this mode of reasoning may appear, the opposite opinion is daily becoming more general. It is now commonly believed that matter consists of ultimate particles or molecules, which are thought to be indivisible; and according to this belief have received the appellation of atoms, (From the privative a and TcfA^Mca Icut.^ T'he arguments adduced in favour of this opinion are derived from certain astronomical phenomena, from the laws of cbem - cal union, and the relations which have been observed to exist between the composition and form of crystallized bodies. These subjects will bo considered in their proper place; but I may observe here, in order to show the nature of the argument, that the supposed existence of atoms accounts for numerous facts, which do not admit of a satisfactory explanation on any other principle.

All bodies descend in straight lines towards the centre of the earth, when left at liberty at a distance from its surface. The power which produces this eff ect is termed gravity, attraction of gravitation, or terrestrial attraction; and the force required to separate a body from the surface of the earth, or prevent it from descending towards it, is called its wtiglit. Every particle of matter is equally affected by gravity; and therefore the weiglit of any body will be proportionate to the number of ponderable particles which it contains.

The minute particles, of which bodies consist, are disposed in such a manner as to leave certain intervals or spaces between them, and this arrangement is called porosity. These interstices may sometimes bo seen by the naked eye, and frequently by the aid of glasses. But were “^hey wholly invisible, it would still be certain that they exist. All substances, even the most compact, may be diminished in bulk either by mechanical force or a reduction of temperature. It hence follows that their particles must touch each other at a very few points only, if at all; for if their contact were so perfect as to leave no interstitial spaces, tken would it be impossible to diminish the dimensions of a body, because matter is incompressible and cannot yield. When therefore a body expands, the distance between its particles is increased; and, convei-sely, when it contracts or diminishes in size, its particles approach each other.

By indestnictihility is meant, that, according to the present laws of nature, matter never ceases to exist. T'his statement seems at first view contrary to fact. Water and volatile substances are dissipated by heat, and lost; coals and wood are consumed in the fire, and disappear. But in these and all similar phenomena not a particle of matter is annihilated. The apparent destruction is owing merely to a change of form -or composition; for the same material particles, after having undergone any number of such changes, may still be proved to possess the characteristic properties of matter.

The secondary properties of matter are opacity, transparency, softness, hardness, elasticity, colour, density, solidi^, fluidity, and others of a like nature. The condition of bodies with respect to several of these properties seems dependent on the operations of two opposite forces — cohesion and repulsion. It is inferred, from the divisibility of matter, that the siibstance of solids and liquids is made up of an infinity of minute particles adhering together so as to constitute larger masses; and in order that these particles should thus cohere, they'must possess a power of reciprocal attraction. T'his force is called cohesion, cohesive attraction, or the attraction of aggregation, in order to distinguish it from terrestrial attraction. Gravity is exerted between different masses of matter, and acts at sensible and frequently at very great distances; while cohesion exerts its influence only at insensible and infinitely small dis-

INTRODUCTION.

tnnces. It enables similar molecules to cohere, and tends to keep them in that condition. It is best exemplified by the force required to separate a hard body, such as iron or marble, into smaller fragments, or by the weig'ht which twine or metallic wire will sujiport without breaking.

'fhe tendency of cohesion is manifestly to bring the ultimate particles of bodies into immediate contact; and such would be the result of its influence, were it not counteracted by an opposing force, a principle of repulsion, which prevents their approximation. It is a general opinion among philosophers, supported by very strong facts, that this repulsion is owing to the agency of caloric, which is somehow attached to the elementary molecules of matter, causing them to repel one another. Material substances are therefore subject to the action of two contrary and antagonizing forces, one tending to separate their particles, the other to bring them into closer proximity,* The form of bodies, as to solidity and fluidity, is determined by the relative intensity of these' powers. Cohesion predominates in solids,in consequence of which their particles are prevented from moving freely on one another. I'he ])articles of a fluid, on the contrary, are far less influenced by cohesion, being free to move on each other with very slight friction. Tluids are of two kinds, elastic fluids or aeriform substances, and inelastic fluids or liquids. Cohesion seems wholly wanting in the former; they yield readily to compression, and expand when the pressure is removed; indeed, the space they occupy is chiefly determined by the force which compresses them. The latter, on the contrary, do not yield perceptibly to ordinary degrees of compression, nor does an appreciable dilatation ensue from the removal of pressure, the tendency of repulsion being in them counterbalanced by cohesion.

Matter is subject to another kind of attraction different from those yet mentioned, termed chemical attraction or affiiiity. Like cohesion it acts only at insensible distances, and thus differs entirely from gravity. It is distinguished from cohesion by being exerted between dissimilar particles only, while the attraction of cohesion unites similar particles. — Thus, a piece of marble is an aggregate of smaller portions attached to one another by cohesion, and the parts so attached are called integi'ant particles; each of which, however minute, being as perfect marble as the mass itself. But the integrant particles consist of two substances, lime and carbonic acid, which are different from one another as well as from marble, and are united by chemical attraction. They are the compoyient or constituent parts of marble. The integrant particles of a body are therefore aggregated together by cohesion; the component parts are united by affi nity ,

The cliemical properties of bodies are owing to affinity, and every chemical phenomenon is produced by the operation of this principle. Though it extends its influence over all substances, yet it affects them in very different degrees, and is subject to peculiar modifications. Of three bodies, A, B, and C, it is often found that B and C evince no affinity for one another, and therefore do not combine; that A, oil the contrary, has an affinity for B and C, and can enter int6 separate com-

* It should be borne in mind, however, that the force which tends to bring the elementary molecules into closer proximity, is derived from an innate property of ponderable matter; while the force which tends to separate them is dependent on the operation of a distinct principle, caloric, whose particles, being self repellent, force the ponderable particles apart. In order to explain why the caloric remains attached to the ponderable molecules, it is necessary to suppose that its .particles, though self-repellent, have an attraction for ponderable matter. B.

INTRODUCTION.

bination witli each of them; but that A has a greater attraction for C than for Ij, so that if we bring C in contact with a compound of A and B, A will quit B and unite by preference with C. The union of two substances is called combination and its result is the formation of a new body endowed with properties peculiar to itself, and different from those of its constituents. Tlie change is frequently attended by the destruction of a previously existing compound, and in that case decomposition is said to be effected.

The operation of chemical attraction, as thus explained, lays open a wide and interesting field of inquiry. One may study, for example, the affinity existing between difierent substances; an attempt may be made to discover the proportion in which they unite; and finally, after collecting and arranging an extensive series of insulated facts, general conclusions may be deduced from them. Hence chemistry may- be defined the science, the object of which is to examine the relations that affinity establishes between bodies, ascertain with precision the nature and constitution of the compounds it produces, and determine the laws by which its action is regulated.

Material substances are divided by the chemist into simple and compound. He regards those bodies as compound, which may be resolved into two or more parts; and those as simple or elementary, which contain but one kind of ponderable matter. The number of the latter amounts only to fifty -three; and of these all the bodies in the earth, as lar as our knowledge extends, are composed. The list, a few years ago, was somewhat different from what it is at present; for the acquisition of improved methods of analysis has enabled chemists to demonstrate that some substances, which were once supposed to be simple, are in reality compound; and it is probable that a similar fate awaits some of those which are at present regarded as simple.

The composition of a body may be determined in two ways, analytically or synthetically. By the former method, the elements of a compound are separated from one another, as when water is resolved by the agency of galvanism into oxygen and hydrogen; by synthesis they are made to combine, as when oxygen and hydrogen unite by the electric spark, and generate a portion of water. Each of these kinds proof is satisfactory; but when they are conjoined — when we first resolve a particle of water into its elements, and then reproduce it by causing them to unite — the evidence is in the highest degree conclusive.

I have followed, in the composition of this treatise, the same general arrangement which I adopt in my lectures. It is divided into four principal parts. The first comprehends an account of the nature and properties oi Heat, Light, and agents so diffusive and subtile,

that the common attributes of matter cannot be perceived in them. They are altogether destitute of weight; at least, if they possess any, it cannot be discovered by our most delicate balances, and hence they have received the appellation of Imponderables. They cannot be confined and exhibited in a mass like ordinary bodies; they can be collected only tliroiigh tlie intei’vention of other substances. Their title to be considered material is, therefore, questionable, and the effects produced by them have accordingly been attributed by some to certain motions or affections of common matter. It must be admitted, howevp, that tfu;y api)car to be subject to the same powers that act on inatter in general, and that some of the laws which have been determined concerning them, arc exactly such as might have been anticipated on the supposition of tlieir materiality. It hence follows, that we need only regard them as subtile species of matter, in order that the phenomena to which they give rise may be explained in the language, and according

INTRODUCTION.

to the principles, which are applied to moterial substances in g*enerrJ^ and I shall, therefore, consider them as such in my subsequent remarks.

The second part comprises Inorganic Chemistry. It includes the doctrine of affinity, and the laws of combination, together with the chemical history of all the elementary principles hitherto discovered, and of those compound bodies which are not the product of organization. Elementary bodies are divided into the non-metallic and metallic ^ and the substances contained in each division are treated in the order which, it is conceived, will be most convenient for the purposes of teacijing. From the important part which oxygen plays in the economy of nature, it is necessary to begin with the description of that principle; and from the tendency it has to unite with other bodies, as well as the importance of the compounds it forms with them, it will be useful, in studying the history of each elementary body, to describe the combinations into wliich it enters with oxygen gas. The remaining compounds which the non metallic substances form with each other, will next be considered. The description of the individual metals will be accompanied by a history of their combinations, first vvith the simple non-metallic bodies, and afterwards with each other. The last division of this part \vill comprise a history of the salts.

The third general division of the work is Organic Chemistry, a subject which will be conveniently discussed under two heads, the one comprehending the products of vegetable, the other of animal life.

The fourth part contains brief directions for the performunce' cf analysis.

ELEMENTS

OF

CHEMISTRY.