The Swedish settlements on the Delaware : their history and relation to the Indians, Dutch and English, 1638-1664 : with an account of the South, the New Sweden, and the American companies, and the efforts of Sweden to regain the colony

Front matter

■I

ON THE

Delaware

Preface

"The springs of American civilization," says Francis Parkman, "unlike those of the elder world, lie revealed In the clear light of history."

It Is the purpose of the present investigation to reveal one of these many small springs of American civilization. It will not be a complete history of the Swedish settlements on the South River, for a complete account of New Sweden, or of any other colony, will never be written; but it will present, in as clear a light and as extensive a manner as the documents at hand allow, the rise and progress of the Delaware settlements, not only as to their political, but also as to their social, economic and religious aspects. The settlements were small and it might seem that two volumes devoted to so short a period of a single colony will tend to emphasize its significance unduly and that the labor expended in the preparation of so exhaustive a study is not at all commensurate with the relative Importance of the theme; but the beginnings, however small, and the springs, however insignificant, whence some of the civilization and culture, some of the strength and power, of a great nation have sprung, are worthy of the closest consideration and the most painstaking research.

The investigation was begun five years ago. The author's Intention was then to write an account of the religious and educational activity of the Swedes on the Delaware from 1638 until 1 83 1, and a mass of material was collected for that period; but It was soon found that, since a great deal of new matter on the political history of the colony was discovered In the archives of Sweden, it would be necessary to limit the treatise. If anything like an exhaustive study was to be produced in a reasonable time. The author has made three trips to Sweden, two to Holland and viii Preface.

England, and one to Finland, in search of documents and materials. The first of these was largely devoted to the visitmg of Swedish church archives and to the collecting of material which, to a great extent, could not be used for the present work, as the matter mostly covers a period later than 1664. The other two journeys were confined to the searching for material relating to the years 1638 to 1664, and the author visited The Hague, Amsterdam, London, Oxford, Stockholm, Lund, Upsala, and other principal places in Sweden and Finland, where documents of any kind were preserved. The great bulk of the new material has, of course, come from Stockholm and Upsala, while London, The Hague and other places have furnished some important data. The facts relating to the companies and their activities and to the colony are based entirely on sources and almost two-thirds of the introduction is likewise the result of original investigation. All the books on the subject, whether important or not, have been examined, which are given in the bibliography (none being knowingly omitted), while works on other subjects than New Sweden that have been referred to once or relatively few times are not listed in the bibliography but are included in the index.

The author has examined and read every document on the subject known to exist. Copies or photographic reproductions were made of the more important of those of which no copies existed in this country, and since the author has, except in the case of the photographic reproductions, been compelled to rely on copies for the proof reading, it is possible that minor variations have crept in, that would have been removed had the author been able to compare the proofs with the originals, but not. It is hoped, in such number as to detract from the value of the work.

A glance at the table of contents will reveal the method of treatment. The work is divided into books, further sub-divided into two parts each, the first part of books IL-V. treating of the activities in Europe for the period covered by each book, the second part giving the story of the settlements for the same

Preface. ix period. There are obvious advantages and disadvantages in a treatment like this, but the author hopes that the keeping of the activities in Europe (the. sending out of the expeditions and the other events in Sweden that had direct bearing on the colony) separate from the events in the settlements will make the presentation clearer and more logical than if the facts had all been related in an intermingled mass.

The introduction giving the European background is, as far as the author is aware, the most complete account of the economic conditions in Sweden at this time, and of the trading companies, that has so far appeared in English, and might seem too long and detailed; but as this period (1612-1664) of Swedish history is of general interest, as the conditions in Sweden and Finland will help to explain conditions and the trend of events in New Sweden and as the New Sweden Company was only one of the many trading societies in Sweden during this period, similar In type though not entirely similar In their objects, the author hopes that the somewhat extended account of these things will not be out of place.

The path of the investigator is a thorny one, and much of his time Is consumed in hunting for documents that once existed, but which have disappeared decades ago, when the zeal for preserving everything and anything was not so general as now. This path, however. Is sometimes made easier by men who have gone before and who have cleared the way, and by those who through their aid. Interest and encouragement, lighten the labor. It now remains my pleasant duty to express my obligation to those who have aided me In Europe and In America. I wish In the first place, to express my appreciation of the valuable services rendered me by the officials of the Royal Archives at Stockholm, Dr. Edelstam, Dr. Brulln, Dr. Malmsten, Dr. Baat, Count Lewenhaupt, Dr. Bergh, Dr. Hildebrand, and the late Dr. Hammarskold, but, more especially, the archivists Dr. Per Sonden and Dr. Theodor Westrin, whose invaluable aid and assistance, so freely given at all times, made the author's researches in the archives not only possible but in so high a

Preface.

degree fruitful. My acknowledgments for assistance are likewise due to the officers of the Kammararkiv, including Dr. Afzelius and others, and to the officers of the Royal Library at Stockholm, particularly to Dr. Lundstedt, Dr. Settervall, and the lamented Dr. Karlsson, whose great memory and encyclopedic information were always a source of aid to the author. To the officers of the University Library at Upsala and especially to Dr. Aksel Andersson the author is under great obligation for aid and encouragement. I wish also to tender my thanks to Dr. Bratt, then at the Landsarkiv at Upsala, and to the officers of the Archives of the Archbishop at Upsala, to Dr. Zettersten of the Archives of the Navy, to the Archivist of the Archives of War, to Dr. af Petersens, Librarian of the University Library of Lund, to Captain Mahnberg of Stockholm, and to all other friends in Sweden and Finland too numerous to mention who have aided me by answering questions and otherwise. In this connection I also desire to express my gratitude to Dr. Bruggman, the Royal Archivist, Dr. van Riemsdijk and other officers of the Royal Archives at The Hague, as well as to the officers of the archives In Amsterdam and to Professor Kernkamp and the Archivist Dr. MuUer at Utrecht. To Dr. Wood of the British Museum and to the officers of the Public Record Office In London thanks are likewise due for the courtesies extended to me during my investigations in these institutions, as also to the officers of the Bodleian Library at Oxford.

Among men in this country who have been of service to me, are to be mentioned Dr. J. W. Jordan, Mr. Spofford, and others connected with the Historical Society of Pennsylvania, especially Dr. Gregory B. Keen who has read the proof sheets and offered many suggestions. Dr. I. M. Hays, Librarian of the American Phdosophlcal Society, the Librarian of the Ridgway Branch of the Library Company of Philadelphia, Dr. R. H. Kelby Librarian of the New York Historical Society, Dr. A. J. van Laer' Archivist at Albany of the State of New York, the Archivist of the Library of Congress, the officers of the Mercantile Library of Philadelphia, the officers of the Library of the University

Preface. xi

of Pennsylvania and Captain A. J. Erikson, of Philadelphia, for making some of the drawings for the work. My grateful acknowledgment for helpful suggestions and encouragements are also due to Albert Cook Myers, to Professor Albert Bushnell Hart, of Harvard, Professor Herman V. Ames, Professor E. P. Cheyney, and Professor D. B. Shumway, of the University of Pennsylvania, to the Swedish Minister to the United States, His Excellency Dr. Johan Ehrensvard, to the Swedish Vice Consul, at Philadelphia, M. A. Viti, to my friend and former teacher Professor J. A. Edquist, of Gustavus Adolphus College, St. Peter, Minnesota, who has read the galley proofs and pointed out many misprints, and lastly, to Professor M. D. Learned who suggested the investigation and who has followed its preparation with great interest and always been a source of encouragement.

It remains to record my gratitude to the Committee on Fellowships of the University of Pennsylvania and to Dr. Charles Custis Harrison, former provost of the University, for making It possible for the author to undertake the last two journeys to European archives, to Dr. J. G. Rosengarten, for his interest and aid in the work, to Professor C. G. Child, President of the Publication Committee of the University of Pennsylvania, to the Publication Aid Fund of the Historical Society of Pennsylvania and especially to the Swedish Colonial Society for making the publication of the work possible In its present form.

Unfortunate delays, some beyond the control of every one, have kept the work in press for nearly a year and It is with a breath of relief the author is able to state that the book is at last ready.

The Author.

Philadelphia, March, 19 ii.

Book I

Introduction : Sweden Immediately Preceding and During the Occupation of the Delaware.

PART I. Political, Social and Religious Conditions in Sweden, 1611-1660

CHAPTER. PAGE.

I. Political History, 161 1-1660 3

II. Relation of Sweden to other Countries, 1625-1660. . . 9

III. The Government 15

IV. Religion, Language, Science, Classes of Society, Popu-

lation 22

PART II. Industries, Commerce and Trading Companies, i 607-1 660

V. The Industries 33

VI. Commerce and Trade 38

VII. The African Company and the Minor Trading Societies, 1607-1663 44

VIII. The South Company, 1624-1630 52

IX. The United South-Ship Company, 1629- 1642 69

X. The New South Company, 1632-1634 81

Book II

The Founding of the New Sweden Company and the Colony, 163 5- 1643.

PART I.

Activities in Europe, 1635-1642.

XI. Samuel Blommaert and the Copper Trade to the West

Indies 87

xiii xiv Table of Contents.

CHAPTER. PAGE.

XII. Peter Minuit and the Plans for the Founding of a New- Sweden Company 93

XIII. The Preliminary Preparations of the First Expedition

and the Establishment of the New Sweden Company. 104

XIV. The Final Preparations and the First Expedition,

1637-1639 109

XV. The Second Expedition, 1639-1640 120

XVI. The Company Becomes Entirely Swedish 131

XVII. The Utrecht Colony and the Third Expedition, 1639-

1641 135

XVIII. The Fourth Expedition, 1641-1642 145

XIX. The Trade of the Company" in Europe, 1 640-1 643. . . 157

PART II.

XX. The Early History of the Delaware until 1638 164

XXI. The Coming of the Swedes and their Occupation of

XXII. The Colony under Ridder, 1640-1643 197

XXIII. Relations with the Neighbors, 1 640-1 643 207

Book III

The Reorganized New Sweden Company and its Activity; AND THE Social, Economic and Political Life in the Colony, 1642-1653.

PART I.>

Activities in Europe, 1642-1653.

XXIV. The Reorganization of the New Sweden Company,

1642 221

XXV. The Fifth Expedition, 1642-1643 237

XXVI. The Sixth Expedition to New Sweden and the Trading

Voyage to the Caribbean Islands, 1 643-1 647 242

XXVII. The Seventh Expedition, 1645-1647 250

XXVIII. The Eighth Expedition, 1647-1648 ] 258

XXIX. The Ninth Expedition, 1649-1673 266

Table of Contents, xv

CHAPTER. PAGE.

XXX. Preparations to send other Expeditions to New Sweden, 1650-1653 281

XXXI. The Trade of the Company, 1643-1653 288

PART II.

The Colony under Printz, 1643-1653.

XXXII. The Social and Economic Life in the Colony 301

XXXIII. Dwellings and Customs of the Colonists, 1643-1653. . 345

XXXIV. Religious worship and the Ministers of the Gfospel,

1643-1653 366

XXXV. Relations with the Indians, 1643-1653 375

XXXVI. Political Relations with the English, 1643-1653 380

XXXVII, Relations with the Dutch, 1643-1653 405

XXXVtiI. The Government of New Sweden, 1643-1653 450

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND REPRO- DUCTIONS OF DOCUMENTS.

Facing page

1. Fort Christina Frontispiece.

2. Carl X 8

3. Stockholm during the time of Christina i8

3a. Johan Stiernhook 20

3b. Johannes Loccenius 20

4. Riksdaler and ore 40

5. Willem Usselinx 52

5a. Charles 1 52

6. Seal and signature of Gustavus Adolphus 54

7. Gustavus Adolphus 68

8. Title page of the Argonautica Gustaviana 82

9. The research-room in the Royal Archives (Stockholm) 88

10. Reading-room in the Royal Library (Stockholm) 88

1 1 . Axel Oxenstierna 90

12. Last page of Blommaert's letter of June 3, 1635 92

13. First page of Minuit's letter of June 15, 1635 96

14. Last page of Minuit's letter of June 15, 1635 97

15. Castle and fort of Elfsborg 108

16. First page of the Journal of the New Sweden Company 110

1 7. Second page of the Journal of the New Sweden Company .... 1 1 1

18. Gothenburg and its harbor in the Seventeenth Century 112

19. Harbor of Amsterdam 118

20. Disembarking from a Swedish ship 118

21. Letter of Hans Weis 124

22. First page and superscription of Van Dyck's letter to Fleming. 128

23. Second and last page of Van Dyck's letter 129

24. Letter from Johan Beier 132

25. First and last pages of Van den Bogaert's letter to Beier 142

26. Type of a Finnish woman 1 48

27. Type of a Finn 148

28. Spiring's letter to Fleming 154

29. Landing place of the Swedes 182

xvii xviii List of Illustrations

Facing page

30. First page of the relation made before Ruttens 184

31. Second and third pages of the relation made before Ruttens. . 185

32. Fourth and last pages of the relation made before Ruttens. ... 184

33. Indian Family according to Lindestrom 188

34. Strings of sewant {wampum) 192

35. Bill showing that at least 450 bricks were shipped over on

first expedition 194

36. First page of Ridder's letter of June 8, 1640 198

37. Second page of Ridder's letter 199

38. Bill signed by Van Langdonk 200

39. Castle at Viborg 202

40. Wind mill 204

41. Copy of a letter from Berkeley , . . 216

42. Queen Christina 220

43. Stockholm in the seventeenth century showing the Royal

Palace , 222

44. Tido palace 230

45. Account of the barber-surgeon Hans Janeke 232

46. Van Schotting's bill of June, 1643 233

47. Commission of Gov, Printz 238

48. Klas Fleming 250

49. Admiral Fleming's flag-ship 251

50. First page of Peter Trotzig's letter of March 12, 1652 282

51. Last page of Trotzig's letter 283

52. Governor Johan Printz 300

53- Types of Swedes in national costumes 302

54. Bill of lading signed by Printz and Huygen 318

55- Water-mill 328

56. Wind-mill ^28

57. Kota (kata) 3^6

58. Cross-section of the kota {kata) 346

59- Wooden hook used in the kota {kata) 346

60. Porte from Sweden _ .0

61. Porte in Finland _ .g

62. Interior of a porte _ . o

63- Types of wooden chimneys , ,q

66. Burning splint with holder " '

List of Illustrations xix

Facing page

67. Movable splint-stick holder of wood 350

68. Interior of a dwelling, showing " clothes-hangers " and wooden

utensils 352

69. Interior of a dwelling, showing bedsteads, the clock, etc 352

70. Wooden spoons 354

71. " Beer-pot" of wood 354

72. Wooden shoe 356

73. " Slipper with wooden bottom (sole) " 356

74. Shoes of birch-bark 356

75. Basket of birch bark 356

76. Interior of a bath-house 358

77. Interior of a small bath-house 359

78. A small storehouse 359

79. Store-house from Finland 360

80. Interior of the store-house from Finland 360

81. Small store-house on posts 362

82. Store-house from Sweden of two stories 362

83. Store-houses in Finland 364

84. Sled used in Finland for hauling hay and grain 364

85. Types of wooden hay-forks 364

86. Threshing in the North 365

87. Threshing flails 365

88. Belfry or bell tower 366

89. Per Brahe 376

90. Indian woman in costume 377

91. Copy of Governor Winthrop's letter to Governor Printz. . . . 396

92. Stuyvesant's letter to Governor Printz, July 24, 1650 432

93. Copy of the Indian declaration, July 3, 1651 438

94. Copy of the Indian relation of July 13, 165 1 440

95. Copy of the Indian certificate of July 16, 1651 441

96. First page of Printz's letter of August i, 1651 444

97. Second page of Printz's letter 445

98. Third page of Printz's letter 446

99. Fourth page of Printz's letter 447

100. Governor Printz's seal 450

lOi. First page of Monatgelderbuch, showing the budget of the

102. First page of Papegoja's letter of May, 1648 454

103. Last page of Papegoja's letter of May, 1648 455

XX List of Illustrations

MAPS.

Routes to and from New Sweden 86

New Sweden and neighboring districts 164

Lindestrom's map of Virginia, New Sweden, New Netherland and New England 206

BOOK I. "^Districts occupied by Sweden at this time

"WMii Districts ivhence the majority of the -ibVi

Delaware Co/onJsta came. J^'

■e provinces 3ohus, Hallanc^, SKane and f King ivere ceded by DenmarK to Sweden .() hf in I658.(5eep6^/) ^J)/)^6*

PART I.

POLITICAL, SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS IN SWEDEN, 1611-1660.

CHAPTER I. Political History, i 611- 1660

The decades preceding and following the year 1600 mark a turning point in history. The Germanic peoples begin to assert themselves in European politics and one of the characteristics of the following centuries is the growing influence of these races in the history of the world. England destroyed the Armada and laid the foundation for her greatness ; the Netherlands defeated Spain, became the leading mercantile nation of the age and introduced a new era in painting; the Germanic nations laid the foundation for a commonwealth destined to become the greatest republic and to develop from various heterogeneous elements into the most extensive homogeneous settlement on record; the Reformation inaugurated by Germany was saved by Sweden, and the invention of printing, due to Germanic genius, now attains to its full significance in the new era of freedom of thought and of conscience. The proudest chapter of Swedish history belongs to the same period, more accurately to the first half of the seventeenth century, the era of Gustavus Adolphus and of Oxenstierna, of Christina and of Charles X.

It was preeminently an epoch of war and of great archievements. When Gustavus Adolphus ascended the Swedish throne in 1611,^ his country was at war with three nations. Having been refused peace by Denmark, he was compelled to

^He was crowned at Upsala in October, 1617. Hildebrand, Sv. hist., V. 98.

bring the struggle with that nation to a bitter end. Although the Swedish people gave their undivided support to their king, the enemy gained considerable advantages and Gustavus Adolphus had to submit to rather hard terms in 1613, when both parties were finally tired of the useless and bitter warfare.^

Troops could now be spared for the Russian campaign, which had been conducted with marked ability and singular success by Jacob de la Gardie and Evert Horn, and the king went in person to lead the operations in the summers of 16 14 and 1615. After lengthy peace conferences, which lasted nearly a year and a half, English and Dutch commissioners acting as mediators (although the Dutch are not mentioned in the treaty to satisfy the vanity of King James), the treaty of peace was signed at Stolbova on February 27, 1617.^ Through this peace the territory of Sweden was increased by Ingermanland and Keksholmsldn, and Gustavus Adolphus had won two of his great objects — Russia wis pushed back from the Baltic and a natural northern boundary was secured for Finland.*

The truce with Poland, which had been renewed several times, came to an end in 1617.^ Rumors of great preparations in Poland and Spain for an attack on Sweden were freely circulated and Gustavus Adolphus kept his army and navy in readiness. A Swedish fleet manned by Dutch soldiers captured Diinamijnde and Pernau the same year, but a new truce was made in the autumn of 161 8. Now followed a period of comparative quiet; however, in 1621 the struggle began anew.

Poland, having lately renewed and firmly established the Catholic religion, was ruled by a king of the Vasa house, who had a legal right to the Swedish crown. She was the leading European power in the east and the standard bearer of Catholicism against Turks and heretics, and hence a natural enemy of Sweden, and finally she possessed territory along the Baltic that must be brought under Swedish control, if the dream of

"Cronholm, I. 27 ff.; Geijer, HI. 68 ff.; Odhner, 191 ff. 'Cronholm, L 194 ff.; Hildebrand, Sv. hist., V. 37 ff. •See map in Sv. hist., etc., V. 117. Also Odhner, p. 243. ° Hildebrand, Sv. hist., V. 109 ff.

Political History. 5

making the Baltic a Swedish inland sea should be realized. There were therefore various circumstances that might provoke hostilities. The immediate cause of the war, however, was Sigismund's pretentions to the Swedish throne and his refusal to recognize Gustavus Adolphus as the rightful king of Sweden.

In the summer of the above-mentioned year (1621) a Swedish fleet of one hundred and forty-eight war ships and ten yachts set sail for Riga, with about 14,000 selected soldiers on board, some being mercenaries from Scotland and Holland.* Brilliant campaigns followed under the leadership of the king, De la Gardie, Gustaf Horn, Johan Baner and others, arresting the attention of Protestant Europe, and many voices from the camp of the new faith called upon the Swedish king to become the leader of their forces. He expressed his willingness to do so^ on certain conditions and presented a comprehensive plan of operations, while diplomatic conferences were held with representatives of England and Holland, having this end in view. But King Christian, always jealous of his northern neighbor, also offered his services in the pending struggle, and, as his conditions were more moderate and his demands on the 'allies less exacting than those of Gustavus Adolphus, he was chosen to be the Gideon of the Evangelical Union in the fierce combat with the Catholic League.® The Swedish army had been reorganized and the navy had been largely increased, but it was not yet to be used against the imperial forces. Gustavus, hoping for more favorable times, went to finish his war with Poland. After several victorious expeditions, through which Sweden gained great advantages and extended her territory, a six years' truce was concluded at Altmark in 1629.®

King Christian in the meantime, having lost his battles with

• Cf. Cronholm, I. 372 ff.

' A truce having been effected with Poland.

'Rydfors, De dipl. forb. met. Sv. och Eng., p. i ff. ; Gardiner, Eng. under the Duke of Buckingham and Charles I., I. 139 ff.

' For these campaigns see Cronholm, II. i ff. ; Hildebrand, S'V. hist., V. 125 ff.

the veteran Tilly, was forced to withdraw from the field. The time was now ripe for action. England and Holland were willing to submit to the plans of Gustavus Adolphus. The Protestant princes requested him to become the defender of their faith, and Richelieu advised him to take an active part in the war. He negotiated with England through Spens and Roe, with Holland through Camerarius, and Lars Nilsson was sent on an embassy to France; but England gave no support, no treaty being made,i* and Nilsson's mission to France had little result."

The Swedish king was now fully determined, however, to enter the lists — it was a case of averting a future danger from his own kingdom. The Polish war not only prepared him for this struggle; it also furnished means for its prosecution, and when he returned to Sweden it appears that his decision had been made.^^ Shortly after his arrival in his country in the autumn of 1629 he called a meeting of the Council of State to determine what action was to be taken. The meeting became a turning point in modern history, for it was decided that Sweden should take an active part in the Thirty Years' War. The motives of Gustavus Adolphus for beginning the war are clearly stated in the minutes — they were religious, political and commercial.^ ^

After large preparations the King set sail for Germany with an army of about 13,000 men and landed on the island of Usedom in June, 1630. His achievements in Germany and his death in the midst of victories, are well-known facts. The Swedish forces were successful for some time after the Battle of Liitzen, but at Nordlingen, Gustaf Horn and Duke Bernhard were defeated by Ferdinand and Gallas. The years 1634, 1635 and 1636 were dark and full of trials for the Swedish leaders. Johan Baner indeed won a brilliant victory over the

^°A private treaty was made with Hamilton, however. "Rydfors, De dipl. forb. mel. Sni. och Eng., p. 21 flF. 148 ff Sweden collected the duties at PiUau, Memel, Danzig, Libau and Windau.

Political History.

Emperor's forces at WIttstock, but he was soon after compelled to retreat, before a superior army. Gradually, however, things became brighter for the Swedes. Swedish statesmen like Oxenstierna and Swedish generals like Baner and Torstensson wrought success out of what appeared to be disaster.

Denmark had played false to Sweden in her years of trial. To revenge these and former wrongs the Swedish government determined to use its armies against its southern neighbor and to compel this power to recognize the Swedish rights. Lennart Torstensson was ordered to bring his army by forced marches into Denmark and to deliver a decisive blow before the enemy had time to make necessary preparations. The plan was eminently successful^ ^ and soon the Swedish armies could again be sent against the Imperial forces. The Thirty Years' War finally came to an end in 1648, through the treaty at Westphalia, and Sweden enjoyed a short period of almost undisturbed peace.^^

Christina, having ruled for ten years, abdicated in 1654, and was followed on the throne by Carl X. The Polish King, John Casimir, would not recognize Carl as the lawful king of Sweden, even using the titles and coat of arms of the latter in royal proclamations. Carl X. therefore determined to compel him to resign these titles and pretensions as well as to recognize the Swedish right to Livonia.

The Swedish treasury was empty and the two great parties, the nobility and the commoners, were pitted against each other In a social struggle; but the diet of 1655 gave permission to the King to begin hostilities and voted funds for his use. There was great enthusiasm for the war in Sweden and wealthy noblemen contributed large sums from their own means. Foreign soldiers flocked to Sweden to enlist under her victory-crowned banners, and soon Carl X. was able to move against his foe.

A period of war was now inaugurated and the four years

" Cf. below, Chap. XXVI.

"Cf. Geijer, III. 303 ff.; Gardiner, The Thirty Years' War, p. 121 flF.; Hildebrand, Sv. hist., V. p. 289 ff., 466 ff.; Hist. Tid., XXII. 169 £F.; Otte, Scand. Hist., p. 272 ff., 289 ff.; Bain, Scandinavia, 177 ff. ; Ward, A. W., Cambridge Mod. Hist.. IV. 178 ff., 364 ff., 430 ff., 560 ff.

from the autumn of 1655 to the beginning of 1660 were almost a continuous chain of battles and sieges. Few men in history have given greater surprises to their age than Carl X.; few, perhaps none, have accomplished equal results with the same means and in so short a time. In a few months Poland lay bleeding at his feet, destined never to regain her former power. Russia, Austria and Denmark made war on him almost simultaneously, but by a march over a frozen sea, one of the greatest feats on record, he led his army into the heart of Denmark, compelling this power to sue for a peace, which secured to Sweden the most valuable territorial acquisition in her history.^® The great warrior king, however, soon broke the peace, the total annihilation of Denmark being his aim, but fortune failed him for the first time. Cromwell, on whose influence he had relied, died, changing the attitude of the commander of the English fleet; France fell off, the Netherlands took sides with the enemy and the Danish people were aroused to fight for their existence. In the midst of tremendous activities, the King became ill during a diet in the beginning of 1660, and on the morning of February 13 he died, at the age of thirty-eight years.^^

"Another important historic event at this time was Carl X.'s treaty with Brandenburg in 1656. This treaty laid the foundation for the Kingdom of Prussia, which was destined to play such an important part in European history.

"For this period of Swedish history see Carlson, S<v. hist., etc., I. 156 ff.; Hildebrand, S-v. hist., V. 504 ff. Fridericia, Dan. Hist.; Bain, Scandinavia, p. 238 ff.; Ward, etc., Cambridge Mod. Hist., IV. 576 ff.; V. 558 ff., 562 ff.; Hist. Tid., 1904, p. 35, etc.