Army uniforms of the world

Front matter

piiliiiK

Fred Gilblrt Blakeslki:

LIBRARY

Introduction

THE STUDY of the changes which have occurred in the garb of the fighting man, and of the devices used to designate his leaders, from the days of the bow and arrow to those of the magazine rifle, should appeal to all persons interested in the history of mankind; and it is the purpose of this little work to treat this subject in such a manner that it may, it is hoped, prove helpful to those who might wish to learn something of the dress of the soldier in the diflferent periods of history.

The author has spent a number of years collecting the data used in this book, much of it being obtained only after extensive search in such vast literary storehouses as the reading room of the British Museum in London, and the public libraries of Washington, New York,

and Boston.

8 AKMY UNirOEMS OF THE WORLD

Through its specialized attention to military badges of rank, it is believed that the book covers in detail a field not usually treated in works of a similar nature.

In order to assist the student in further research, a bibliography of works relating to military costume is given, but while urging consultation of other publications, the author has endeavored to make his text so clear that the reader may obtain from it alone an accurate knowledge of the uniforms and insignia of rank in use in all of the principal armies of the world.

Uniforms differ so greatly in the various countries that it is impossible to describe each separately within the limits of a book of this size, but a description of each class of uniform, in each country is given, and, as far as possible, the facings which go with it are also indicated. In the same manner the form of insignia of rank used in each army is described, together with its arrangement for any desired rank. This method obviates the necessity of illustrations, which if used at all, would from

INTKODUCTION 9

their very number greatly increase the cost of a work of this nature. In these days of universal photography, illustrations are not really necessary, since it is always possible to secure a picture of any desired uniform and by consulting the text, ascertain its color and facings, and the arrangement of the insignia for any rank.

Besides a description of the uniforms of the different countries, information is also given regarding the methods in vogue in each, in wearing such articles of equipment as sidearms, dispatch pouches, sabre-taches, sashes and aiguillettes.

As this work is written for American readers, the author has given special attention to tracing the development of the uniforms of our own army from Colonial times to the present day, not forgetting to include the garb worn by the gallant Confederates, who fought so gallantly for a lost cause, half a century ago.

The author served in the Spanish war, and for fifteen years was military instructor of

10 AKMY UNIFOEMS OF THE WOULD

the West Middle School District in Hartford, Connecticut. He wrote the signed articles upon "Military Insignia of Rank," "Fencing" and "The Sword" in the Encyclopedia Americana.

Contents

PAOB

Intboduction 7

CHAPTEB

Chapter I

MILITARY costume has undergone great changes during the centuries in which men have fought against each other, and it is a far cry from the days of prehistoric man, uncouthly garbed in skins, and armed with the primitive stone axe, to the time of the khakiclad soldier with his high-powered magazine rifle.

The earliest known type of human beings, either went without clothing, or were dressed in crudely tanned skins of animals. Their weapons were the axe, the knife, the javelin, and possibly the bow and arrow. As the art of working metals had not then been discovered, stone and wood were used exclusively in the construction of these earliest of weapons. Roughly speaking, the stone age began with 13 the creation of the human race and lasted until the dawn of the Egyptian and the Assyrian civilizations. As mankind became more intelligent, they learned to make use of minerals, and bronze took the place of stone in weapons of offence. During this period also, cloth replaced skin as an article of wearing apparel, although leather continued to be used for defensive purposes.

The Assyrians, according to bas-reliefs of ancient Ninevah, appear to have worn a tight-fitting jersey of twisted ropes over a tunic of cloth, and to have been armed with weapons of bronze. The sword, resembling a dagger in form, makes its appearance at this time, and men armed with javelins carried circular shields. Metal helms for protection of the head also came into use during this period.

The Egyptians were not much given to wearing armor, relying chiefly upon the shield for defence. Egyptian shields were oblong, or oval, in form and many of them were provided with sight holes, through which a warrior could watch his adversary without uncovering himself. Like Assyrians, the soldiers of Egypt possessed the short, straight, double-edged sword, but many of them carried in its stead a broad-bladed, single-edged cutting weapon, shaped something like the cleaver of our modern butcher.

The Trojan war was fought with weapons of brass, and Homer in his Iliad, gives us an excellent description of the military equipment of that period. The Greek warrior wore a cuirass of plate; a helmet which protected both the top of the head and the back of the neck and was surmounted by a fan-shaped crest; and metal greaves, which covered the leg from the knee to the ankle. A large circular shield, a long javelin, and a straight, two-edged sword completed his equipment.

With the passing of the Heroic Age we enter the iron period, and as we gaze at the Greeks and the Persians engaged in deadly warfare, we find the weapons and armor of both of the contending forces composed largely of that metal. The Greeks at this time had a highly efficient military organization and had perfected a formation known as the phalanx, which when brought into action under favorable conditions was well nigh unconquerable. It was composed of heavily equipped men armed with long spears, placed close together in five or more ranks, and so arranged that the spears of the last rank projected three feet in front of the line of the front rank. One can well imagine the extreme difficulty of breaking through such a solid array. The great weakness of the phalanx lay in the fact that it was difficult to maneuver except upon level ground, and if it was compelled to fight over rough country, it became almost impossible for it to hold the compact formation, which was so essential to its success.

The hoplite, who was a member of the phalanx, wore an iron helm which completely covered his head, except for the eyes, mouth and chin; a leather tunic extending nearly to the knees, and greaves molded to fit the legs. He carried besides his spear, a heavy iron shield, round or oval in form, which afforded him complete protection from the neck to the knees. Besides the hoplite the Greeks had lightly armed troops, which they used for scouting, skirmishing and similar duties, but it was upon the heavUy equipped and thoroughly trained soldier that they placed their chief reliance and it was these "men of iron" which enabled them to successfully withstand the terrific onslaughts of the vast hordes of Xerxes and Darius.

-The Persians, having in their armies drafts drawn from the nations and tribes whom they had conquered, had a widely diversified military equipment which it would be useless to attempt to describe here, but in a general way it may be said that the dress of the nobles consisted of a garment of cloth upon which bands or rings of iron were sewn, while the common people had tunics of linen, or wool, padded with hair or some other substance. Helms of metal or padded cloth were worn; swords, spears, axes, javelins, bows and arrows, and slings constituted the armory of weapons and shields of various forms and sizes were largely relied upon for defence. On account of the great diversity of people who composed their army, it was impossible for the Persians to have as highly a trained organization as that of the Greeks. It was the Grecian phalanx, and

18 AEMY UNIFOHMS OP THE WORLD

afterwards the Roman legion which taught the world the value of discipline and organized formations.

With the advent of the Roman soldier we reach the age when steel replaced iron. The legionary wore a cuirass, composed of circular bands of steel sewn upon an undergarment of linen or leather, each band being hinged at the back and secured in front by means of a clasp. Four smaller plates passed over the shoulders like straps. On his head was a shallow but serviceable helm, having cheek pieces which were fastened with a thong under the chin. A short, straight, double-edged sword, having its point cut at an obtuse angle, hung at his right side ; in his right hand he carried a spear of peculiar design, known as the pilum; and on his left arm he bore an oblong and very convex shield, emblazoned with the design of his legion. Roman officers wore a cuirass of plate, molded to fit the figure and often highly ornamented, from the bottom of which hung ropes of twisted leather, reaching nearly to the knee. Scale armor was sometimes also worn by officers of high rank. Over the cuirass was worn the paludementum or military mantle, which fastened on the right side and hung in graceful folds from the left shoulder, reaching to the middle of the leg. Superior officers disdained to wear the helmet and went into action bareheaded.

The Roman legion differed from the Greek phalanx in that it did not have as great a depth and that the soldiers who composed it, instead of being placed shoulder to shoulder, were allowed an interval between them for the free use of their weapons. The great advantage of the legion over the phalanx lay in its superior ability to maneuver effectively over varied ground.

The barbarian Franks, who burst from their Northern fastnesses and overthrew the once powerful, but then degenerate, Roman Empire, were totally devoid of defensive body armor. They fought bareheaded and with their bodies covered with linen tunics. Without cuirass or helm these wild warriors engaged the once invincible legions, and with only shields for their protection completely routed the soldiers whose forbears had once conquered the world. The

20 AEMY UNIFORMS OF THE WOKLD

Prankish shield was made of wood, circular or oval in form, strengthened with bands of iron tlnd having in its center a large projecting metal boss. For oifensive arms these savage fighters had axes, swords and javelins.

In the days of Charlemagne we again find armor coming into use, consisting of a tunic of cloth to which metal disks were more or less closely sewn. Most of the soldiers still fought bareheaded, or wearing only a simple leather cap, but the knights adopted a triangular shaped helmet of steel. One great change occurred in the method of fighting at this time and that was the general introduction of mounted men into battles. Heretofore chief reliance had always been placed upon the foot soldier, but at this point we enter the age of chivalry, where the knight and the mounted man-at-arms were looked upon to bear the brunt of the fighting.

When William of Normandy set out to invade England, his queen Matilda and the ladies of her court made a record of that great event by embroidering with their own fair hands a tapestry, showing in great detail the military equipment of both the Normans and the Saxons. This priceless tapestry is still preserved at Bayeux, France and from it we learn that both of the contending forces had armor consisting of a shirt of cloth, upon which rings of mail or small plates of iron were closely sewn, and a helmet of steel. The Normans carried a kite-shaped shield, while the Saxons had a circular bucMer. Each was armed with long cross-hnted swords, axes, spears, javelins and bows and arrows. The Norman helm had a projecting nasal and back piece, while the Saxon covering for the head appears to have lacked these additional defences.

Chain mail is supposed to have come from the East and to have been introduced into Europe after the first crusade. In the time of Richard I the armor of a knight consisted of a shirt of mail reaching nearly to the knees and having long sleeves, terminating in mittens ; long close-fitting trunks of mail which completely encased the legs and feet; and a shallow steel cap. When about to engage in battle, the great helm replaced the steel cap. This extremely heavy and unwieldy piece of armor covered the entire head and was provided with sight and air holes. A concave shield, rather triangular in form, suspended from the neck by a belt, and a straight crosshilted sword, worn on the left side, hanging from a loosely fitting belt completed the dress of a knight of this period. In the reign of King John, a loose sleeveless surcoat, reaching to the knees and worn over the mail shirt, was added to the costume. About the middle of the fourteenth century, this surcoat was replaced by a much shorter and tightly fitting garment, termed the jupon. It was in this century also that plate, in the form of additional defences for the arms and legs, began to be worn, and the great helm was superseded by the lighter and more serviceable basinet, with its movable vizor. The shield by this time had also become much smaller and now bore the heraldic device of its bearer, while gauntlets were used for the protection of the hand. The famous battles of Crecy and Poitiers were fought in armor of this type.

In these battles one should always remember the part played in them by the British archers, for it was their cloth-yard shafts which broke the force of the charge by the French chivalry. The long bow was pre-eminently the weapon of the English foot soldier, and no other people ever attained such skill in its use as did he. The best of them were made of yew and they projected an arrow nearly a yard in length. The range of this weapon in the hands of a good archer was about four hundred paces and with it, it was possible to keep several shafts in the air at a time. On the march the bow was often carried in a waterproof case, and at the battle of Crecy it was the fact that the English archers had, by this means, been able to keep their strings dry during a heavy shower, which enabled them to completely outshoot the Genoese cross-bowmen, who lacked such protection for their weapons.

The dress of both the archer and the crossbowman were practically the same, although fashions naturally varied somewhat, according to the country to which the wearer belonged. Both wore a steel cap and a mail shirt or padded tunic. Besides his bow, each man had a sword, or axe and usually a small buckler.

24 ARMY UNirOKMS OF THE WOELD

The quiver for arrows was worn suspended from the right hip and not hung from the shoulder, as it is sometimes erroneously depicted by modern artists. The cross-bow, which was the favorite missile weapon of continental Europe, made its appearance in the latter part of the twelfth century and remained in use until displaced by firearms. It was a powerful weapon of greater range than the long bow, but- it was impossible to maintain a rapid fire with it, since its cord had to be drawn back by mechanical means after each discharge.

During the fifteenth century, plate entirely superseded mail and at the close of that century, we find the knight completely "locked in steel." Shields were discarded and no outer garments were worn with the armor. A dagger called the misericorde, used for slipping between the vizor bars of a fallen foe, was added to the military equipment of this time. Complete armor continued to be worn throughout the sixteenth century, but in the seventeenth, the increasing use of firearms caused portions of it to be gradually discarded and by the end of that century only the helmet, now become a steel hat, and the cuirass, were commonly worn. A hundred years later the wearing of armor of any kind, except by the heavy cavalry, was completely given up and the uniform became the distinctive dress of the soldier.

Chapter II Eakly Unifoems

HAVING marked the changes which occurred in the dress and equipment of the soldier from the days of prehistoric man to the time of the army uniform, let us see if we can learn something of the manner in which the opposing forces of the various countries were distinguished from each other, and how the leaders were differentiated in their apparel from men of lesser rank. As soon as man passed beyond the stage of barbarism each tribe or nation felt the need of having some special symbol of its own and it was these early symbols, reaching back to the dawn of history, which afterwards, through many changes, became our national flags. The standards of the nations of antiquity differed from the flags that, in modern days, have taken their place, in that they were of metal instead of cloth. The 26

EARLY UNIFORMS 27

standards of the Assyrians, Egyptians and Greeks were circular disks, bearing distinctive devices, while the Romans carried the eagle at the head of their legions. All of these early standards had a religious significance.

In the Middle Ages, flags and banners replaced the metal symbols of the earlier periods and their use has continued until the present time. The first banners were crude affairs and the devices displayed upon them were without any special form of arrangement, but when the science of heraldry came into being, definite rules were adopted for the construction of flags and officers were appointed to see that these rules were enforced.

The history of the Royal Standard of Great Britain shows the changes which a flag of this class passed through in the different centuries and affords us an excellent insight into heraldic art. The earliest British standard of which we have any authentic record is that of Richard I, which bore three golden lions (supposedly in compliment to his cognomen — Coeur de Lion) upon a field of scarlet. The Scotch adopted about 1230 a rampant lion of

28 ARMY UNIFORMS Or THE WORLD

red within a tressure of the same color, upon a field of gold, and upon the accession of James I to the throne (1603) this became incorporated in the standard, signifying, as it did, the unification of the two countries. The harp of Ireland was added by Henry VIII and has remained in the standard ever since. Edward III, claiming to be king of France, as well as of England, quartered the golden fleurs-de-lys of that kingdom with the lions of his own country and these symbols of an imaginative sovereignty were not removed from the royal flag of Great Britain until 1801.

As early as the reign of Richard II it was the custom for English soldiers to wear the cross of Saint George upon the breast and back of their white surcoats and the red cross upon a white field soon became the national flag of England. Later the crosses of Saint Andrew of Scotland, and Saint Patrick of Ireland were added and thus was evolved the union jack of the present day.

During the Middle Ages, the knight bore attached to his lance a swaUow-tailed pennon upon which his arms were displayed. For a

EARLY UNIFOEMS 29

deed of exceptional valor, the king would sometimes create a knight a banneret, by cutting off the tails of his pennon with a sword.

Armorial devices to indicate rank came into use during the latter part of the twelfth century. At that time it was the custom of knights when about to engage in combat, to place the great helm over the head, thus entirely screening the features, and it is possible that the necessity for having some means of identification under such circumstances, led to the devising of badges of rank, to be emblazoned upon the shields of such persons who had attained sufficient distinction to entitle them to such an honor. Early heraldic devices were simple in form and for some time more or less confusion existed, owing to the duplication of arms, especially amongst knights of different countries ; but gradually all armory was brought under certain international rules and the arms of a knight or noble became universally recognized as being his distinctive insignia. When, during the fourteenth century, the long surcoat was replaced by the short, tight-fitting jupon, the arms of the wearer

30 AEMY UNIFORMS OF THE WOEI.D

were embroidered upon the breast of that garment, and from that fact became known as his coat of arms.

After the jupon had been discarded and the knightly soldier was clad entirely in plate without outer covering, arms continued to be borne upon the lance pennons, the devices in many cases being so arranged that they would show in their true position, not when the lance was held aloft, but when it was couched for a charge. Common soldiers often wore the badges of their leaders, but were careful not to place them in knightly fashion: a metal plate attached to the left arm being one of the methods used for displaying such devices. Distinguishing scarfs were also worn to some extent.

It is well to remember that the coat of arms was the personal badge of the knight and while it indicated to some extent his military rank, it did not by any means limit the size of his command. Sir John Chandos and the Chevalier Bayard were simple knights and yet they often commanded armies in the field, having under them officers of far higher social rank

EASILY UNIFORMS 31

than their own. Regulations regarding the relative rank of officers did not exist in those days.

As half armor began to replace complete plate, the infantry, which for several centuries had occupied a very secondary place, came into prominence again and the fashion of fighting on foot became once more common. The mounted men-at-arms became the pikemen and the archer relinquished his bow for the match-lock. Regular organizations resembling our regiments began to be effected and soldiers were bound to the direct service of the king, rather than to that of their overlord, as had previously been the case. In Elizabeth's time a company consisted of a captain, a lieutenant, an ensign, a surgeon, two sergeants and about ninety privates, of whom half were pikemen and half musketeers. Officers were armed with rapier and dagger and wore sashes, but as yet no distinction appears to have been made between the grades.

About the middle of the seventeenth century the wide-brimmed beaver replaced the steel morion and with this the men wore a ribbon and

32 ARMY UNIFOEMS OF THE WORLD

a bow and the officers a ribbon and rosette, both of which probably matched the color of the regimental facing. Twenty years later we find plumes added and the brim cocked up on one side, and early in the next century we find this head dress turned into the three-cornered hat.

A badge for officers was in vogue in England from 1660 to the end of the reign of Charles II, which consisted of a sort of epaulet, formed of bows of ribbon. This was worn on the right shoulder only. When the ribbon epaulet went out of fashion it was replaced by wings of cloth edged with lace, similar in form to those worn by English and German bandsmen of the present day. British officers continued to wear the waist sash (color probably red) the ends of which were ornamented with gold or silver fringe. The gorget, a curved metal plate about five inches long and two inches wide, worn just below the collar, came into vogue at this time as a mark of rank and continued to be a part of the dress of an officer in nearly all armies until the latter part of the eighteenth century. The Old Guard of New York still wear this

EABLY UNIFORMS 33

curious ornament with their full-dress uniform. In England the gorget of a captain was gilt and of a lieutenant and ensign of steel studded with gold. A Captain of infantry carried a pike, a lieutenant a partisan and an ensign a half pike. Officers of cavalry carried white truncheons and general officers the baton.

Although the pikeman was a very effective soldier in the assault, he was practically useless for any other purpose and towards the end of the seventeenth century we find him disappearing from the armies of the world and his place taken by the musketeer, who owing to the introduction of the bayonet was now able to fight effectively both at a distance and at close quarters. Pistols also came into general use about this time and the old match-lock gun was superseded by the flint-lock musket.

Of the earliest types of military uniforms two examples remain today: that of the Papal guard, said to have been designed by Michelangelo ; and that of the "Beef Eaters," a corps organized by Henry VIII. Both of these are extremely picturesque, but illy adapted for actual service. The household troops of Louis

34 AEMY IINIFOEMS OF THE WOELD

XIV of France are said to have been the first soldiers to have worn a truly military uniform. With the single exception of the leather coat, which was very popular about the time of the Thirty Years War, the early dress of the soldier did not differ in its cut from that of the civilian and it was only his arms and equipment which gave it a military character. It was not until the eighteenth century that closeness of fit became a distinguishing feature of the garb of the fighting man.

From about 1650 to 1710 the single breasted frock coat, with the turned up cuffs appears to have been the favorite body garment of most soldiers both in England and on the continent, it being customary to leave the upper part of the coat unbuttoned, so as to show the lace tie. Cavalry wore top boots and infantry knee breeches and leggins. The wide-brimmed beaver was the almost universal hat of this period. Officers wore long flowing wigs and men powdered their hair and braided it behind into the pigtail.

Early in the eighteenth century, we find the cutaway superseding the frock coat and this

EAELY UNIFOKMS 35

article of apparel retained its popularity until after the Napoleonic wars. A variety of head dresses came into existence at this time, notable among them being the bearskin, the grenadier hat and the hussar busby, although the cocked hat was by no means driven from the field. The heavy wigs of Marlborough's time went out of fashion and both officers and men powdered their hair. It is during this period that we begin to find gold epaulets appearing on the shoulders of officers, although they do not as yet seem to have borne any devices, save possibly in the cases of generals and other high military officials.

A general order issued to the British Army on May 4, 1796 prescribes that all officers of infantry of the line shall have a crimson and gold cord around the hat, with a rosette of the same colors brought to the edge of the brim; the sword knot shall be crimson and gold in stripes ; the gorget to be gold gilt, with the king's cypher and crown in the middle ; the same to be worn with a ribbon and rosette at each end, of the color of the regimental facing. In the reign of George II, British officers wore the

36 AEMY UNIFOUMS OF THE WOELD

sash over the shoulder but in the time of George III, they were ordered to pass it around the waist ; officers of cavalry tying it on the right side and those of infantry on the left.

Early in the nineteenth century, military fashions changed again and the cutaway gave place to the swallow tail, a coat which buttoned tightly across the breast and had a very high standing collar. Long trousers came into vogue at this time and the bell-crowned shako became the favorite head dress. This uniform, of which a sample has been preserved in the dress of the cadets at West Point, lasted in most armies until about 1840, when the short jacket for the men and the frock coat for officers became the generally accepted rtile. With this uniform, a low-crowned cap attained popularity in some armies. Towards the close of the century the Germans introduced the spiked helmet and it is still worn by a majority of the soldiers of both Germany and Great Britain.

Each country now has its own distinctive uniforms, with which the insignia which denote the rank of its officers are clearly prescribed by official regulations ; and having noted the

EAELY UNEFOaMS 37

changes which have occurred in the dress of the soldier in the different periods of history, and marked the manner in which rank was shown in olden times, we are now ready to consider the uniforms of each country separately and note the methods by which rank is now indicated in the various armies of the world.

Chapter III 1492-1861

IN 1492, when America was discovered by Columbus, complete armor was the fashion, but by the time settlements began to be effected on our shores, only the steel hat and cuirass were in common use. Miles Standish marched against the Pequots in armor of this type, but even defences of this sort did not long remain popular, the sturdy settler soon learning to place more reliance upon skill with the rifle, than upon heavy plate which so greatly impeded active movements.