Light and shade with chapters on charcoal, pencil, and brush drawing; a manual for teachers and students

Front matter

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zmi tiGHT-AND'SHAD

BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME FROM THE

Preface

The text-books of the National Drawing Course are intended particularly for public school teachers ; but this book is written, not only for public school teachers, but for all art students and others interested in ait education. It supplements the first book of the series (" Free-Iland Drawing "), and shows how the methods explained in it may be applied in the study of light and shade.

Good instruction in drawing must be based upon the principles which underlie the best in art, and therefore any book which is intended for the student and elementary teacher must present these principles, and must also show how students may be led to see, think, and work independentl)'.

The books "Free-Hand Drawing," "Mechanical Drawing," and "Color Stud)' " form a necessary part of the National Drawing Course, as they contain the lessons in these different subjects which are to be given according to the order specified in the teacher's "Outlines of Lessons." "Light and Shade" contains no lessons or other work called for in the plan of study of the present system, for it is not considered wise to attempt light and shade in the public schools until pupils have gained more ability in free-hand drawing than they now generally acquire below the high school. In presenting, in the "Outlines of Lessons," work in outline simply, the author does not wish to be understood as in favor of this work onlv, or iv PREl-ACE.

as i

sc un

sc holding the opinion that light and shade cannot be taught in the public schodls with advantage in grades below the high

hools. Un tile contrary, he believes that this subject may

der suitable conditions be proper!)- introduced into grammar

hools when i)upils are able to draw in outline with some degree of facilit)- antl truth.

This bo(.)k is written for those who wish to study the first principles (if light and shade, and the details cnncerning mediums, techiii(_|Ue, antl the man\' fmints upi.m \\iiich the student must be inturmed. It is written with the hope that it ma)' assist stuilents, and [larticulaih' those wlm wnrk at home, to stud)' intelligenth', so that all ma\' go to Nature as the first and best teacher, and be [Meparetl to discover in her the truths she imfdlds to those who studv her serinush'.

I\Ian\" of the illustratiiins of this l^odk are f n mi students' drawings, and tlmugh the)' do not rej^roduce the tlrawings [Jerfectly, t]ie\' gi\"e an idea of what ma\' be accnmplished b\' students who are taught to work artisticalh', and to depend upon themseh'es and upon stud\' of nature.

I""igs. 43, 44, antl 5S are b\' second-\'ear students of the Massachusetts Xornial Art School ; the other charcoal drawings of Chap. \' are by students of the entering class of the same school, as is also Fig. Co. I'igs. G^, 64, and 65 are b\' students of the School of L)i"awing and Painting of the Museum of Fine Arts, liosto)i.

Such work can seldom be tlone in the public schools until contlitions are \'er\' ilifferent from those now existing; but teachers can gix'e instiiiction of an artistic iiatine which will be in hainioin' with the work of the best artists, and wliich will prc|),ne loi' work such as that ilbrstrated.

s

PKEFACE.

Onl_\- the essentials can be given in this book. Those who wish to go nioie deeplN into theories and principles will find man)- interesting books. Among these the works of Sir Joshua Re\iiolds are particularly valuable, as he is a prominent example of a great artist who has also wiitten upon art, and all art students ari' ach'isetl to study his writings with care.

The authoi- desires to express his obligations to Robert W. \^)nnoh, (i. A. Hill, and Am)- Swain, who haxe kindly read the proof sheets and furnished him with many \-ahiable suggestions.

BuSTuN. Uctubcr IJ, 1S96.

The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library.

There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text.

CO N T K N TS.

ClIAl'TKR I.

PAGE

Chtaro-oscura, ok I,u;iri' anh Siiaiu ....... i

CIIAI'I'KK ir.

Values and 'riiEiK Tests . 46

('IIAI'ri':R I If.

Aims he Sti'Deni' and Ariist ......... 63

(■iiai'I'i-:r TV.

Technioue and Methcjds 70

ClIAl'TKR V.

C'HARCO.XL Drawin(; 85

ClIAl'TKR VI.

Pencil Drawing . . .111

Hrush Drawing , . .128

CHATTKR VIII.

Dr.\wing in the Public Schuols 140

( IIAI'-TKK IX.

Advice to .Arl .Students ......... 1^2

DKFINITIONS 165

INDEX 179

LIGHT AND SHADE.

CHAPTKR I.

CHIARO-OSCURA, OR LIGHT AND SHADE.

Chiaro-OSCura. — The word "chiaro-oscura" means the art of producing the appearance of reality and of soHdity by a drawing which represents the dilTerent Ughts and darks seen in nature.

Sight due to education. — We see wliat we have been educated to see. The infant reaches out his liand to grasp tlie moon, and even to adults appearances are so deceptive that when the moon is rising or the sun is setting, it is difficult often to believe that they are not just bevond sunie hill in the middle distance, and if the distances were not fixed by science they would be continually under discussion. There is no chance for discussion concerning the facts, but upon questions of art science is of little assistance. Hence different people viewing the same things will give verv contradictory reports of what they see, and each will be positive that what he has seen is what all should see and all that can be seen.

Sight is imperfect. — Any one will be surprised to discover how little he realh' sees, even of the objects about him everv day, if he will attempt to describe from memory, either by words or b}- making any kind of a drawing, the facts concerning any building which is seen daily. On comparison of his description or drawing with the building, he will be astonished to discover that he has never really seen the building, for he cannot describe correctly even its principal parts ; and as for details, many of the most important he never sees until he compares the biulding with his description.

Sight due to memory. — The act of seeing depends upon the brain more than upon the eye, for sight sensations are referred

2 /JhJIJ' AXD .SJIAJ>K.

by the iniiul to knowledge previously obtained concerning similar sensations. Seeing is thus largely a matter of memory, and sight sensations are read, not by careful study of the facts of the image in the eye. but by means of the knowledge gained from all sources concerning objects which have occasioned similar sensations. The natural eye is an exact instrument which records truly the apparent form and color of an object. 'I'he same images are formed in all normal eyes which view any object from the same position, but these images will be read differently bv minds differing in capacity and training ; and of a dozen different people who see the same objects, no two are likely to agree in their description of them. The person who has not studied drawings looks at a circle and jvtj- a circle, regardless of the position of the circle ; he looks at a white object and sees white of one unvarying \Mlue ; he looks at a tree and sees green when the eye may record not a single spot of green. 'I'he uncultivated eye sees objects in outline and of their local color, and even those of artistic temperament and education require much stuch' to realize that any object of one color ap|)ears of very different colors, none of which mav be the local color.

Objects are seen by contrasts of light and dark. — objects are seen through the action of light which they reflect to the eye in different degrees and of different colors, and everv object appears lighter on one side, darker cm the opposite side, and throws a shadow upon some other olsject. ( )bjects are visible because of contrasts of light and dark, each one a|3pearing either lighter or darker than its surroundings, or appearing lighter than the background in one part and darker in another. If two objects of the same color reflect light equally to the eye, they appear of the same value, and if any part of one is in front of the other, its outline in this part cannot be seen.

A monochrome. — These contrasts of light, dark, and color may be represented by contrasts of light and dark, using simply one color. .Such a drawing or painting is called a niouocliroiih-. and may be of any color, though black or some dark neutral color is generally used.

X monochrome is a light and shade drawing, whether it is made with oil or water color or colored crayon, and any drawing representing values simply is a light and shade drawing, whether made with the brush, charcoal, cra\'on. pen and ink, or other metlium.

CB/.-JA'O-OSCC'A'.I. OA' LICJJT AXD SHADE. 3

All objects in nature are colored, and representing these colors by black and white or by different tones of any one pigment gives a conventional treatment, which, though far superior to outline, may fail in expressing all the facts observed, to do which even color is sometimes insufficient; but a light and shade drawing is capable of expressing much concerning any object. It is more satisfactory than outline, because the slradow on any object varies with the form of the object, and thus describes it ; and also because the cast shadows vary both with the form of the object which casts them and with that of the object which receives them, so that they describe the forms of both. The shadow and cast shadow will often show facts of form which tire outline or contour of the object does not show at all.

Effects of different lights. — Objects are seen under very different illuminations ; they may be exposed to direct light, either sunlight, moonlight, or any artificial light, and this light may be strong or weak ; or they may be seen under the diffused light of a gray day, or of a room with shaded windows, or of a starlight night. The direct light may come from one source or from several, and the diffused light may be strong or weak, though to a less extent than direct light. It is evident that the effects produced by these different lights must be so numerous and so varied that to formulate rules for the production of light and shade drawings is impossible. But by study of the effects certain principles may be discovered which will help the student of light and shade just as the study of the principles of free-hand perspective aids in the study of outline drawing.

Thf. Sphere.

Sphere illustrates all light and shade contrasts. — \\'e will study the effects of sunlight by means of the sphere, which is well adapted to present all the light and shade effects visible in nature.

Sunlight effects. — The rays of sunlight are straight, and diverge from the sun, but in the study of shadows are generally considered as parallel. One half of the surface of the sphere will then receive direct rays of light, and the other half will receive no direct rays. The half which receives the direct rays appears light, and is called

IJGJI'J' A.VJJ SJ/ADE.

B the light : that wliich receives no direct rays appears dark in contrast with the light, and is called the skaJow. The light and the shadow are separated hv a great circle upon the sphere which is perpendicular to the rays of light. The points in the circumference of this circle are the points upon the surface of the sphere at which the rays of light are tangent to the sphere. These tangent rays form a cylindrical surface which extends below the sphere till it intersects the ground or other surface. The part of this other surface within the cylindrical surface receives no direct light and is called the itist shaiioii'. Any object exposed to direct light has a light side and a shadow side, and throws a cast shadow.

Dividing line of light and shade.

— The above facts are shown b)- Figs, i and 2. Fig. i is a side view representing the ground by ./ />', the highest and lowest ravs of light by A' and R, the light by /., and the shadow bv .V The great circle which separates light from shadow is represented by CD, and is called the dividing line of liglit a)iJ shailc. Observation of a white sphere which is exposed to sunlight will make these points plain. Hut if Fig. i is not understood, let the student roll a sheet of paper into a tube which will just receive a ball or other spherical cii)ject. He will fnid that the c\linder will touch the sphere in a circle which is at right angles to the axis of the cylinder and which aiipears a straiuht line when the c\linder is placed as in Fig. i. l'"ig. 1 represents the sphere when it is below the eye with the "Ilipse of cast shadow visible, and so that the circle separating light from shadow appears an ellipse.

Light and shadow on the moon. - .\ familiar object which illustrates tiic a|)pearance of the dixiding line of light and shade on the sphere is the moon, of which half the siuface is lighted bv the sun's rays and the other half is in shadow. I'he moon is conslanllv

CJ//AKO-OSCC'A\L OA' L/GJ/V AXJi SIIAJ>F.. 5

ch;inging its position witii reft-ience to tlie earth and tiicj sun ; hence its circle, which separates Ught from chirk, is being seen at different angles, and the different phases of the moon result.

Photographs do not give sharp dividing lines of light and shade. — In Fig. 3, which is made from a photograph of a white sphere with a smooth surface, there is no sharp dividing line of light and shade. The light came from a window facing north, and we must now consider the cause for the dilTerence between Figs. 2 and 3.

Reflections. — In order to determine this we must remember that

Fig. 1 From Photograph.

light is reflected from any smooth, polished surface such as that of a mirror, so that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection, and a perfect image of the object is produced. Very little of the light falling on the surface is absorbed by it. and almost all the rays are regularly reflected so that the image is almost as bright as the object. If the mirror is not quite smooth or regular, a distorted image will be produced, and as the roughness of the surface is increased, its power to reflect light decreases ; moreo\'er the light is reflected irregularly, so that no image is prochiced.

Effect depends upon position. — The difference in the appearance of the different parts of the sphere of Fig. 3 is caused entirely by the different positions of the various parts of its surface with reference to the light. The lightest part is not, as is coiniiifinly stated, the part which receives the most light, that is, ti)e part at right angles to the direction of the light, but is the part wiiich is situated so as to reflect the light most directly to the eve. The darkest parts of the surface are those which send to the e}e none of the direct ra3S and the fewest ravs that strike the surface after being reflected from some other surface.

The high light. — I'he surface of the sphere is continuallv changing. One point is situated so that it reflects the ray which it receives directh' to the eye. 'I'his point glitters, and is called the /lii^li lii^/it iw i^littcr piiiiit. Away from this point the rays are reflected less directly toward the eye, and the farther from the high light a point in the light is situated, the farther from the eye it reflects the light it receives.

'I'he high light is theoreticall\- a point when seen with one eve and with tlirect sunlight, and if the s]3here is one whose surface is a perfect mirrfjr. With an\' studio or other light and the usual conditions, the high light is a figine of definite form, which is the refleclion nf the winduwor source of light, and within it will be found the image of all tile bars which divide the window. If the sphere is not ]iolished. there will be instead of the high light a spot whose size depends upon the size of the window or light, and which is brighter th.m an\- other part of the sphere. Hence we ha\e a glitter point or its eipiivalent on the surf.ice of e\er\ sphere.

The half light.- The points in the circle which separate light from siiadow do not reflect an\ direct r.iys to the eve. for these ravs are tangent to the sphere at tiie^e ])oints. which, since thev receive no direct light, must a])pear ver\- dark. from the high light toward these points there is a gradual diminution in the apparent lirightness of the sphere, and at tlu'se points the light surface ceases. The gradation is verv gradual through the larger part of the light, and is most noticeable near the dividing line of light and shade: this last part is called the iialf lii^lit .

The reflected light. The strongest part of the shadow upon the sphere is the circle which separates the light from the shadow, lietween this circle and the outline of the sphere a part of the shadowis considei abb' lighter th.m the rest of file sii.ulow . I'his is caused l)y light which is retiectud to the sphere from the object on which it rests or from other objects, and is called rctJcctcd liglit. This rcHected light is always present, and the entire shadow part of the sphere which is \isible must receixe and send to the eye some reflected light ; were this not the case all details of the shadow side would be as invisible as the dark part of the moon. The power of reflected light is shown at the time of new moon when all the surface of the moon is visible ; a small part being brightly illumined by the direct rays of the sun. and the larger part faintly lighted by the ravs reflected to it from the earth and then sent back to earth again.

If the surface of the sphere is polished and a bright object is placed near the shadow side, it will be reflected bright and sharply defined ; and upon a sphere of polished metal the reflections would be so bright as to destroy the eft'ect of light and shadow. When the surface is not polished or not e\en smooth, the reflected lights are much weaker and may often be hardh' noticed.

The cast shadow. — 'I'he cast shadow in Fig. 3 is seen to be dark and clearly defined, its outline being sharper near the sphere than farther awa}'. The cast shadow, like the shadow, is darker in parts and lighter in other parts, owing to the unequal amounts of reflected light which these parts receive and then reflect to the eye.

Photographs not always true to nature. — Photographs do not gi\'e the \alues and relations which the eye sees, but they often give the principal eft'ects so nearly as the eye sees them that the student may learn much from them in connection with study of the objects themselves, and thus many of the illustrations of this book are from photographs. All who study these notes are advised to carefully study similar objects placed so that they are lighted as in the illustrations. The direction of the light and the size of the window from which it comes influence the eftect so strongl)- that several e.xperiments may be necessary to obtain eftects similar to those of the figures.

The Cup.e.

Generally three faces of the cube are in light and three in shadow, and six edges separate light from shadow and form the dividing line of light and shade.

L/Uirr A\J) SI/ADE.

Fig. 4 represents a wiiite cube placed against a gray background and a piece of charcoal resting against the cube. The light comes from above, behind, and at the left of the spectator.

The light. — Tlie front light face is lightest at tile front edge and gradually iiecomes darker as it recedes : it is lighter than the top face. If the cube is perfectly clean and its faces are equally white, and the light comes from sucli a direction that the top face and the front face reflect it equally to tile eye. these faces will appear equally

Fli;. -(, Fnun rliiiliii:;i'nph liglit, and tiie edge sep.irating them will be invisible. If the top face reflects more light to the eye than the frcint face, it will appear the lighter.

The shadow. The shadow side of the cube is darker than the foregroLuid .uid backgroiuid, lighter than the cast shadow, and much lighter than the charcoal : it is darkest at the front edge and gradually becomes lighter as it recedes. It is also darker near the bottom where the dark cast shadow reflects dark.

The cast shadow. The cast shadow is darkest and sharpest nearest the cube. The charcoal seems to cast a shadow within that of the cube; but ,is the charcoal is wholly within the shadow of the cube and receives no direct ra)s, it is evident that the darkening of

CJ/JAA'O OSCfKA, OA- LIUIIT AXD SIIAIU:. g

the cast shadow near the cliarcual cannot be due to tlie same cause that occasions the cast shadow of the cube. No object which is in the shadow of another can cast a direct shadow, for it receives no ihrect rays of light. It does, however, receive indirect rays, and when they are strong an object in the cast shadow, lil^e the charcoal in the present case, may cut olT these reflected rays so as to darken the cast shadow near the object, and thus practically produce the effect of a cast shadow. The cast shadow of the cube is darkened in this way in two distinct directions, and variety in the cast shadow is often due to this cause.

Light reflects on foreground. — The front face of the cube reflects light to the foreground. If the foreground were smooth, this light would cause a distinct reflection bounded by two vertical lines ; but as the foreground is rough paper, the reflections of the edges of the face are not seen, and the foreground is simply lightened under and near the face.

The Cylinder.

The light and the shadow. — Half the curved surface of the cylinder (Fig. 5) is light and half is shadow, one base is light and the other is shadow, and two opposite elements of the cylinder separate the light part of the curved surface from the shadow.

As the direction of the light changes, the shadow elements change so that the visible curved surface may be wholly light or wholly shadow, or both light and shadow in any proportion.

The high light. — If the cylinder is polished and both the light and shadow of its curved surface are seen, the light, if sunlight, will strike upon the curved surface along some one element so as to be reflected directly to the eye, and thus give, instead of a glitter point, a glitter line or element.^ If the light is that of a studio, it will be reflected to the eye from a number of elements, and thus give a band of light parallel to the axis of the cylinder. The width of this band of glitter light depends upon the width of the window. From this high light the curved surface curves in each direction so that the farther

' As we have two eyes, there are really two glitter points upon the sphere and two glitter elements upon the c\'linder and cone, but they are near each other.

lO

L/u//y AXI) SHADE.

it is from the high light, tlie farther from the eye it reflects the light which it receives; and finally we reach the shadow elements, which separate the light from the shadow. The rays of sunlight are tangent to the surface in these elements which, receiving no direct light, appear very dark ; toward the high light from these elements we ha\e with sunlight a broad and simple mass of light, marked by the glitter

I'll-.. 5. brnm PtKitograph.

elements and by the half light which gives the gradation into the shadow and which is most marked near the shadow elements.

Gradation in the light. — With a studio light the gradation from light to dark is more gradual, and from the high light we find a gradually increasing tone which increases in strength near the shadow element and gradually becomes shadow. AN'e find also in any light, gradation from the glitter element in opposite directions, so that at tiie contour element in the light the tone is darker than at any element between the contour and the glitter element. The

C///.IA'0~OSCC'A'.l, OA' I.IGIIJ' AXD SHADE. II

drawing imperfectly represents tliis gradation in which there is no sudden change from one element to the next.

The base in light will generally appear darkest where it comes in contrast with the lightest part of the curved surface.

Gradation in the shadow. — The shadow element receives no direct light, and generally it receives less reflected light than the other elements in the shadow, so that the shadow is generally darkest at the shadow elements. The contour element on the shadow side is generally decidedly lighter than the shadow element, and between these elements the shadow is generally affected by reflected lights so that its lightest part is between the contour and the shadow element.

The cast shadow. — In Fig. 5 the cast shadow is darker upon the vertical than upon the horizontal surface, although it may be the other way when the light comes from another direction. Though not shown by the photograph, a small part of the cast shadow nearest the cylinder was the darkest part of the cast shadow. The contour of the cast shadow is composed of straight lines, which are the shadows of the two shadow elements of the cylinder, and of a curve which is the shadow of half the circular edge of the upper base.

Shadows soften as they recede from the object. — The softening of the shadow, as it recedes from the object which casts it, is due in all the figures to the fact that the light comes from a window several feet in width. From each side of this window the rays pass tangent to the object so that they cross each other and produce a series of shadows overlapping each other, and which increase gradually the strength of the shadow until its full depth is found beyond the boundary of the surface from which the cylinder cuts olT part but not all the rays which enter the window. Near the object this partial or soft shadow covers very little space, and at the object practically none, so that the cast shadow where it begins is very keen and becomes softer as it recedes, until often with a studio light it may not express the form of the object that causes it.

LiGii r .i.\j> sjJAJu:.

The Conk.

The light and the shadow. - When the cone is directed toward the light, all its curved surface is light and the base is shadow; when directed from the light, the base is light and the curved surface is wholly shadow. The curved surface may be both light and shadow in anv proportii.n. The light and shadow are separated by elements:

but though they may be opposite elements, as in the cylinder, the proportion of light to shadow would seldom be the same.

The high light and the light. — When the curved surface of the cone (Fig. 6) is partiallv or wholly in light, line element will reflect the light directly to the eye and he the glitter or high light, l-'rom this high light the curved surface extends in both directions towards the shadow elements, which reliect no direct light to the evt ,ind which are the darkesi elements. The nearer an\ element in the light is tc K,r.. „. F,„n, M„„„„;„.h. j,^^ shadow element, th<

farther from the eye it reflects the light, and so, as in the case of thf cylinder, there is a perfect gradation of tone from the high light tc the deep shadow of the shadow elements. The change is gradua and most marked near the shadow elements in the half lights, sc that as we go from the shadow elements toward the glitter elemen the effect is that of a mass of light.

The shadow. — I'he shadow element generally reflects to the eyi less reHected light than the other elements in the shadow, and tin darkest shadow upon the cone is generally at the shallow element c//JAj<o^oscrKA, OK Ljcnr axd sijadi:. 13

From the shadow element toward the contour element on the shadow side there is gradation due to the retlected light, which is strongest between the contour and shadow elements. The contour element is usually lighter than the shadow element.

When the visible curved surface is wholly or largely shadow, the darkest shadow is generally on the nearer parts, and the same is true of the cylinder when thus placed.

The cast shadow. — The cast shadow in Fig. 6 is bounded by straight lines which are the shadows of the shadow elements, and, as in the other figures, it is sharpest and darkest nearest the cone.