Ancient and mediæval republics: a review of their institutions, and of the causes of their decline and fall

Front matter

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Introduction

The glory and the wane of republicB of the past form a subject of never-dying interest to the student, the philosopher, and the statesman. In the laborious narratives bequeathed to us by, patient and truth-loving historians, who not unfrequently had witnessed with their own eyes the scenes portrayed by their pens, in the vivid pictures presented by the comic and the satirical poets, and in the philippics of Demosthenes and the orations of Cicero, we trace the workings of the same jealousy, the same ambition, the same love of power and greed for gold which animate men to-day. In the study of ancient institutions and customs we learn how little there is new under the sun, how few experiments in civil government have been untried, how few tricks and expedients for the achievement of political objects are original with modern partisans. We may observe, at a secure distance, the play of unruly passions, the rage of rival factions, the plots and counter-plots of conspirators. Each sketch of the life of a dead commonwealth is in itself a tragedy, full of lessons and full of warnings to every friend of manhood equality.

My purpose in undertaking the preparation of this volume was to present a continuous and compact review of the various democratic and oligarchical systems which nourished in ages gone by. None of the republics whose institutions are described in this book now exist, although Venice endured for over thirteen centuries, having submitted to the first Napoleon in 1797, three hundred years

IV INTRODUCTION.

after John Cabot had planted on American soil the banner of St. Mark. All have perished, but their fame survives in their mighty monuments, in our classics, in the verylanguages of civilized nations, and even in the titles of European nobility.*

I thought it but appropriate that my work should begin with a sketch of the Hebrew commonwealth, and of the Mosaic laws, which, copied to a large extent by the founders of New England, have left an imprint upon our institutions that will never be effaced. From the Israelites I have passed, by an easy and natural transition, to their neighbors, the Phcenicians, and thence to Carthage, the queenly daughter of Tyre. I have followed the Hellenic States from their formation, through their growth, their greatness and their decline, and until the period when the Achaean League yielded to the legions of Home. More than one-third of the work is devoted to Roman constitutional history. I have riot stopped at the downfall of the commonwealth, but I have traced the gradual disappearance of republican forms and of the legislative authority of the Senate, the establishment of an irresponsible military despotism, and the organization of the vast and oppressive system of administration, which sapped the vitality of the empire. I have sketched the rise of Christianity, and the decline of Paganism, until its suppression by Theodosius, and have closed my review of ancient Rome with a chapter on the collapse of imperialism in the west. The birth of a new Italian nation, 1 and the rise of papal power next demanded attention,

*The titles of prince, duke and count had their origin, as is elsewhere explained, in the republican period of Rome.

IMTBODUCnOSr. V

before the institutions of mediaeval commonwealths could be intelligently reviewed. The subject of the papacy I have endeavored to treat with judicial impartiality; neither bowing to error because it is venerable, nor pandering to prejudice by a needless obtrusion of truths which to many are painful. Having conveyed to the reader an idea of the attitude of the Roman court toward the young republics of northern and central Italy, I have essayed to relate the events which led to the liberation of the Lombard communes from the imperial yoke, to depict their brief season of prosperity and independence, and to tell the gloomy story of their enslavement. I have then turned to Florence, where democracy long survived the ruin of freedom in Lombardy, and outlined the straggles of the warring factions who contended for the mastery of that State, the frequent and peculiar changes in the constitution of the commune, and the promotion of the Medici from the condition of plebeian bankers to be autocrats of the people among whom they had been citizens. My task terminated with a sketch of the growth, grandeur and decay of the Venetian oligarchy.

My views upon the causes of the decline and fall of the systems of government described in this volume are fully set forth ; but I have carefully refrained (except in one instance) from drawing any deductions which might seem to have a direct bearing upon public affairs in the United States, lest whatever educational value the work may possess might be impaired by the diverse feelings and partial strictures

VI DSfTBODUOTION.

that such reflections could not fail to evoke. Wherever I have introduced the idea of another, I have given due credit therefor ; though I have not cumbered my pages with references as to unquestioned historical facts. In conclusion I add that it was not without well-grounded diffidence that I entered a field in which so many men of extensive knowledge and transcendent abilities had preceded me ; but I was encouraged by the thought that, while I could not emulate their genius, I could imitate their industry, and that diligent labor would command respect, even when directed by inferior talent. Henby Mann.

Nbw Tobk : August, 1879.

Chapter I. The Hebrew Commonwealth— The Phoenicians— Carthage

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Part I. — The Hebrew Commonwealth— Divisions of the Tribes — Election of Rulers— The Qualifications of Magistrates— The Senate of Seventy — The Congregation of Israel— The Mosaic Code— Education Among the Hebrews — The Judges— Samuel Surrenders His Trust— Election of a King.

Part II.— Influence of the Conquest of Palestine Upon the Destinies of Nations— Canaanitish Civilization -Sidon and Tyre — The Tyrian Commercial Aristocracy 13

Part III.— The Carthaginian Republic — Wealth an Indispensable Qualification for Office— The Suffetes— The Great Council— The Council of Elders— The Pentarchies— Aristocratic Clubs — Grandeur of Carthage — Leather Money — Human Sacrifices— Causes of the Downfall of the African Republic 15

Chapter II. Origin And Formation Op The Hellenic States

Part I. — The Primitive Inhabitants of' Greece — Warriors the Ruling Class — Tribes and Fraternities — Attributes and Emoluments of Royalty — The Crown Hereditary— Public Justice— Privileges Enjoyed by Women —Condition of Woman in the Heroic Period Compared with Her Status in Later Times— The Amphyctionic League 21

Part II. — The Dorian/Invasion of the Peloponnesus— Dorian Customs and Characteristics — Cause of Spartan , Predominance— Early Institutions of Lacedaemon— Tribes and Sub-divisions of Tribes— The Council of Elders- Authority and Dignity of the Kings— Election of Senators

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—No Guarantee against a Betrayal of Trust— Jurisdiction of the Council— Division and Inheritance of Landed Property— Spartan Education— Public Meals— The Citizen- Army— The Helots— The " Crypteia," or Secret Assassination of Slaves— The " Crypteia" in its most Cruel Aspect —The Provincials— Tendency of the Institutions of Lycurgus to Create an Aristocracy —Social and Political Clubs— The Ephors Representatives of the Oligarchy — Almost Unlimited Power of the Ephors— Humiliation of

the Royal Families 28

Part III. — The Achaean League — The Boeotian Confederacy— A Union of Fourteen Sovereign States — Federal and Local Constitutions — The League of .JBtolian Tribes- Causes of the Difference of Political and Social Systems in the Different States of Greece —Monarchy Supplanted by Oligarchy — Growth of the Democracy — Dominion of Tyrants — Feudal Government in Thessaly — The Thessalian Confederacy 43

Chapter III. The Institutions Of Solon

Part I.— The Primitive Communities of Attica— An Obscure Political Revolution - The State Ruled by an Oligarchy of Birth and Wealth — Deplorable Condition of the Small Property-owners— Growth of a Popular Party — The Draconic Code— Solon Called Upon to Act as Arbitrator and Lawgiver — Partial Cancellation of Indebtedness —The Constitution Established by Solon — The People Divided according to their Property— The Lowest Class Allowed to Vote, but excluded from Office— The Burdens and Honors of the State borne by the Wealthy — The Senate of Four Hundred— The Areopagus— The Archons— Assemblies of the People— The Helisea -Qualifications for Citizenship— Training of the Athenian Youth— Forfeiture of Civil Rights— Resident Aliens— Admission of Foreigners to Citizenship— Slaves and Freedmen — Legislation in Regard to Women— The Greek Ideal of Perfect Womanhood—Condition of Women in Athens- -Mistresses and Prostitutes— The High Position held by Some Mistresses—

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Laws in Regard to Inheritance and Guardianship —

Revision of the Laws Provided for 49

Part II. —The Usurpation of Supreme Power by Pisistratus — The Tyrant Expelled and Reinstated — Effect of his Rule upon the Commonwealth — Hippias Driven out of Athens — Important Changes in the Constitution- Organization of Ten Tribes Based upon a Territorial Division of the State — The Demes, or Townships — Local Self-government in the Demes— The Old Tribes— The Athenian Army 69

Chapter IV. The Imperial Democracy Op Athens

Part I. — Despotic Nature of the Persian Government — The Ionian Confederation— Athens Extends Aid to the Revolted Ionians— War between Persia and the Allied Republics — A Momentous Struggle — Ascendency of Athens The League of Delos ,. 74

Part II.— The Democratic Constitution— Election of Officers by Lot, by Voice, and by Ballot— The Scrutiny- - The Senate a Committee of the Popular Assembly — Duties of the Senators — The General Assembly of the People 79

Part III.— Decline of the Areopagus — Trials before the Areopagites— The Heliastic Courts — The Dicasts— Oath taken by the Dicasts— Public and Private Actions— Forms of Prosecution in a Public Cause— The Preliminary Examination— The Trial by Dicasts— Pleadings and Verdict — Execution of Judgment — Methods of Prosecuting Extraordinary Crimes— Penalties— The Forms in Private Suits —Method of Enforcing Judgment —Action of Ejectment. . . 84

Part IV. — Athenian Revenues and Expenditures — Taxation Graduated According to Wealth— The Support of the Navy — Money and Usury 96

Chapter V. Zenith And Decline Op Greece

Part I.— Character and Motives of Pericles — The Athenian Empire Consolidated — Religion and the State in

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Athens— The Parthenon— Grand Public "Works— General Prosperity— Flourishing Condition of Literature and of the Arts— Growth of Immorality— The Peloponnesian War- Death of Pericles 100

Part II.— Ascendency of Demagogues— Legalized Robbery—Abuse of the Dicastic Power — Free Speech Practically Annulled— The Assemblies become Disorderly —Treason Among the Rich— The Fortunes of War against Athens— Vitality of Republics as compared with Despotisms—Surrender of Athens to Lysander— The Thirty Tyrants — Athens Liberated 104

Part III.— Sparta without a Rival, but Demoralized by the Spoils of Conquest — The Spartans Invade Persia — Confederacy against the Spartans — Recall of Agesilaus — Beginning of the Decline of Spartan Power — Persia the Arbiter of Greece— Persian Policy — Sparta Humbled by Thebes 108

Part IV. — Decline of the Martial Spirit in Greece — Employment of Mercenaries — Macedonian Ambition — The Vain Warnings of Demosthenes — The New Hellenic Empire — Athens under Macedonian Rule— Decay of Sparta 112

Part V. — The JStolian League — Constitution of the League — The General Assembly— The Apocleti— Election by Lot — The Strategus — The Rights of Citizens — The Achaean League — An Inseparable Union — All the States on an Equal Footing — The General Assemblies — The Select Committee — Powers of the General Assembly — Federal Officers— Rights of the States— Greece a Roman Province.. 118

Chapter VI. The Roman Commonwealth

Part I.— Social and Political Condition of the Early Romans— The Curia— The Gens— The Tribe— The Patricians and their Clients— Assemblies of the Curiae— The Senate — /The King— The Commons— Institution of the Assembly of Centuries, or Roman Civic Army— The Citizens Divided into Tribes, and Ranked according to their Property — Powers of the Assembly of Centuries— Forms of Voting, of Election, and of Public Trials— The Centuries gradually

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Amalgamated with the Tribal Organization — Change in the Meaning of the Word "Tribe" — Form of Voting in

the Centurian-tribal Assembly 129

Part II.— Causes of Strife between the Aristocracy and the Commons— All Political Power in the hands of the Upper Order — Authority and Dignity of the Consuls — Civil Dissensions — A Dictator Appointed, and Peace Restored— The Commons Resolve to Abandon the City — A Reunion Agreed upon— Appointment of Tribunes — The Agrarian Issue— Respectability of Landownership — The Public Domain held by the Aristocracy— A Consul, Spurius Cassius, Proposes to Divide the Public Lands among the Landless — He is put to Death — The Aristocracy more Arrogant than before — The Commons Mutiny — A Compromise — The Agrarian Agitation Resumed — The Aristocracy Resort to Secret Assassination— Proposition to Establish a General Assembly of Tribes — Determined Resistance by the Aristocracy — The Measure Carried, and the Number of Tribunes Increased — The Roman Commons Alone in their Struggle for the Rights of Man 133

Chapter VII. Roman Jurisprudence

Part I.— Institution of Written Laws — The Decemvirate — The Laws of the Twelve Tables — Freedmen Enrolled in the Tribes — Patrician Privileges Confirmed — The Commons Debarred from the Public Lands— Paternal Authority — Emancipation — Status of an Emancipated Son — The Disposal of Property by Will— Descent of Property —A Woman a Ward all her Life — A Contract of Marriage —Lawful Marriage — Marriage by Use — Regulations against Celibacy — Condition of a Married Woman — The Roman Matron .. . . ., 141

Part II. — Crimes against Property — Injuries to the Person— Penalties of Crimes — Public Trials — Appeals to the People— Special Acts of Pains and Penalties Prohibited —Bail for Accused Persons 148

Part III.— Forms of Contract — Conveyance of Property —Methods of Procedure in Civil Actions— Inhuman Laws

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for the Eecovery of Debt • 150

Part IV.— Roman Jurisprudence in the Age of Cicero —The Code of Procedure — Dignity and Authority of the Praetors— Public and Private Actions— The Roman Laws Proper -The Plebiscita— Laws of a Private Nature- Decrees of the Senate— Trial by the Popular Assembly — Crimes which were the Subject of Public Prosecution — The Right to Prosecute Criminally— Forms of Criminal Prosecution — The Judices Selecti — The Trial — Procuratores and Advocati -The Evidence and the Pleadings — The Verdict— Penalty for Malicious Prosecution, and for

Prevarication, or Betrayal of Public Justice 153

Part V. — Private Actions — The Actio in Rem and the Actio in Personam — The Interdict, Prohibitory and Restitutory — Methods of Instituting Suit — The Summons — Appearance before the Prsetor — Forms of Complaint — A Day Set for Answer — Pleas, Peremptory and Dilatory — Making an Adversary Judge of the Case — Reference to a Judex— The Formula— Trial of the Cause — The Judgment

—Trial by an Arbiter 161

Part VI. — Tho Legal Profession in Rome — Jurisconsults, Orators, Advocates, and Attorneys — Compensation for Pleading Prohibited — The Law Evaded — Legacies received by Cicero — The Golden Age of the Roman Bar — Predominant Inflnence of the Legal Profession 166

Chapter VIII. The Roman Senate

Part I. — The Roman Aristocracy — The Patricians —The Nobles — The Equestrian Order — Old Distinctions Graduually Ignored — Wealth becomes the great Dividing Line — The Aristocratic and the Popular Parties— The Senate not a Representative Body— The Supply of Senators— Duties of the Censors— Censures not Irrevocable — The Tribunes in the Senate —Number of the Senate— The Senatorial Age- Attire of Senators— Wealth as a Qualification for the Senatorship— Senators Debarred from Trade and Commerce -Respectable Birth a Requisite— Extent of Senatorial Authority. 170

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Part II. — The Right to Convoke the Senate — Summoning Senators —Places of Meeting — Business done after Sunset Invalid — Arrangement of Senators according to Bank — The Prince of the Senate — Preference given to Religious Subjects — Opening the Senate — The Right, the Manner, and the Order of Speaking— Speakers not Confined to the Question at Issue— Dividing a Motion — Division of the House — The Tribunal Veto— Methods of Obstructing Legislation— "Filibustering" — Cicero's Description of a Session of the Senate — A Quorum of the Senate — Form of Dismissing the Senate — Nature and Effect of Senatorial Decrees ; 183

Chapter IX. The Roman Armies

Part I.— Military Service the Duty of the Property-owning Classes in the Early Republican Period — No Standing Army — Martial Education of the Roman Youth — The Military Age — When Exemption Might be Claimed — The Levy — The Military Tribunes — Manner of Selecting Soldiers — The Military Oath — Ranks of the Army — The Company, the Cohort, and the Legion — The Centurions and their Lieutenants — The Avocati — The Cavalry — The Cavalry Legion — The Troops — The Decurions — Arms of the Cavalry — The Imperator— The Legati — The Comites. . . 193

Part II. — Form of Entering upon a Campaign — Military Punishments and Rewards — The Ovation and the Triumph — Magnificence of a Triumph 198

Part III. — Growth of a Distinction between the .Citizen and the Soldier — Devotion to the General Takes the Place of Loyalty to Country— Changes in the Organization of the Legions — Indiscriminate Enlistment— Opulence and Indolence of the Equites — Distinctions between the Ranks of the Foot-soldiers Disappear — Foreign Mercenaries— Romans Following Arms as a Trade — Increase of the Pay of Soldiers — A Victory as Dangerous to the Commonwealth as a Defeat 200

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Chapter X. Rome, From The Decemvirate To The Empire

Part I.— Military Tribunes take the Place of Consuls — Growth of Popular Power — Patricians Seek Honor and Fame in the Army — Extension of the Eoman Dominion —Increase of Luxury and of Profligacy — An Epidemic of Crime — The Populace Fed by the State — Renewal of the Agrarian Agitation by the Gracchi — Limitation of Landownership — Confiscation and Allotment of Surplus Lands — The Agrarian Law Modified after the death of the Gracchi — Caius Marius as a Plebeian Leader — He Selects Soldiers from the Proletariat — Mob Dictation in the Popular Assemblies — Efforts to Purify the Suffrage — The Social War -Roman Citizenship Extended to the Italian Allies — Partial Cancellation of Debts • 203

Part II.— Rivalry between Marius and Sylla — Marius Initiates the System of Proscription — Sylla's Reign of Terror and Bloodshed— Sylla Reforms the State in the Interest of the Aristocracy — The Tribunes "Shorn of Authority— Election by the Assembly of Centuries Re-established— A Law to Prevent Usurpation by Military Commanders— Various Laws— Sylla's Retirement— Causes which led to the Servile Insurrection — Defeat of the Romans by Spartacus and his Gladiators— Crassus Subdues the Insurgents : 210

Part III.— The Growth of Extravagance— Millionaires Rival each other in Public Display — Bribery and Intimidation at Elections— The First Triumvirate— Caesar Elected Consul— He Earns the Favor of the Populace, and the Goodwill of the Equestrian Order— Cicero Banished at the Instance of the Demagogue, Clodius— Cicero Recalled—

Csesar, Pompey, and Crassus divide the Provinces

Death of Crassus— Caesar's Victories make him an Object of Suspicion to the Senate and to Pompey— The Question that was decided by Caesar's Triumph— Csesar Master of the Roman World— His Titles— His Administration- Caesar's Character and Talents— The Experience of Rome a Lesson for Republics— Military Commanders as Civil Rulers— Strong Government— The Assassination of Caesar

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—War and Anarchy— Death of Cicero— Octavius Victor over Mark Antony — Society Reorganized, and the Empire Firmly Established 215

Chapter XI. Imperial Rome, Prom Augustus To Vespasian

Part I.— Three Periods in the Constitutional History of Imperial Rome— Attributes of the Early Roman Emperors — Dual Civil and Military Character of the Imperial Dignity — Change in the Signification of the Title, "Prince of the Senate" — The Imperial Household — The Comites — The Legislature of the Empire — All but the Wealthy Excluded from the Senate — The Senate as a High Criminal Court — Appeals to Caesar — The Emperor in the Senate — The Imperial Prerogatives — Republican Offices and Forms Retained — The Prefect of the City — Departments of the Civic Administration — Compensation of Magistrates, and of Provincial Rulers .' 225

Part II. — Proconsular Power — Condition of the Roman Provinces under the Empire — Influence of Gallic and Iberian Blood — Intellectual Culture — Division of the Provinces into Imperial and Senatorial — All Real Power Centred in the Emperor 235

Part III. — Augustus Reorganizes the Armies — The Praetorian Guard and other Household Troops — The Garrison of Rome — The Legions — Qualifications for Legionary Service — Pay of the Soldiers — The Auxiliaries — The Imperial Policy in Regard to the Military Occupation of Provinces 240

Part IV. — Expenditures and Revenues — A Dual Tax upon Polls and Landed Property — Various Sources of Revenue — The JSrarium and the Fisc 243

Part V. — The Supporters of Caesar — The Provincials Generally Contented — Enemies of the Empire — Aspirations and Weakness of the Old Roman Nobility — Gradual Extinction of the Ancient Families — The Aristocracy of the Empire — The Comitia Abolished by Tiberius — Extension of Citizenship to Provincials — Rights and Privileges of Roman Citizens 245

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Part VI.— The Important Part of the Praetorian Guards in Imperial Affairs— Making and Unmaking Princes— Caius— Claudius— Nero— Galba 249

Chapter XII. The Age Of The Antonines — Rise Op Christianity

Part I.— The Flavian Dynasty— Character and Administration of Vespasian— Association in the Sovereignty— The Eight to Transmit the Empire — The Form of Senatorial Decree at the Accession of an Emperor — The Emperor Absolute and Irresponsible — The Grandest and Happiest Days of Rome— The Roman Dominion Extended by Trajan— Sculpture and Architecture— Public Works — Magnificent Private Residences — Ready Employment for Skilled Labor — Grandeur of the Provincial Cities — Athens, Alexandria, Carthage — Prosperity of Spain, Gaul, and Britain— The Conventus Provinciales — Communication between Rome and Distant Provinces 251

Part II.— The Roman Policy Toward Strange Religions—Why Druidism was Exterminated in Gaul and Britain — The Romans and the Jews — Christianity at first Confounded with Judaism — The Christians regarded as Enemies of Roman Institutions — Persecution and Quasitoleration — Christianity in the Century subsequent to the Antonines — A Republic within the Empire — The gloomy and Arid Waste of Pagan Philosophy — Neoplatonism and the Gnostics — Christianity becomes a Recognized Religion — A Pagan Emperor Enforcing a decree of the Church — Paganism Preparing for the Final Struggle — The Persecution of Diocletian — Pagans Imitating the Christian Hierarchy — Dissensions in the Church 254

Chapter XIII. Decline Of The Roman Empire

Part I.— The Period at which Decline Began — The Licentious Reign of Commodus — Corruption of Roman

Society — Senators in the Arena — Murder of Commodus

Pertinax Attempts to Roform the State— He is Slain by the

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Soldiery — The Empire offered for Sale — Didius Julianus becomes Purchaser — His Brief Reign 263

Part II. — Accession of Septimius Severus — The Intermediary Period of Eoman Constitutional History — A New Praetorian Guard — The Praetorian . Prefect as "Grand Vizier " of the Empire — The Lawmaking Power Gradually Withdrawn from the Senate — The Emperor's Commands the Only Law— The Edict, the Decree, the Epistola, and the Mandate — The Imperial Council — Trial by Judices Palls into Disuse— Caracalla Extends Roman Citizenship to all the Freemen of the Empire — Citizenship no longer of Value— Population of the Empire — Slavery — Numbers, Condition, and Treatment of Slaves 268

Part III. — The Provinces Burdened by Heavy Taxation — Decline of the Municipalities — Burdens Borne by the Decurions of Municipalities — Disastrous Effects of Onerous Taxation 273

Part IV. — Rise of a New Persian Empire — The Nations of Northern Europe — Their Social and Political Organization—The Embryo of the Feudal System — The General Assembly of Freemen— The Goths— The Franks— The Sarmatians = 276

Part V. — Disintegration of the Empire — The Enemies of Rome Repulsed by Able Usurpers — Aurelian Accomplishes a Reunion of the Roman World — A Cato in the Purple — The Sumptuary Laws of Tacitus — The Heart of the Empire Asiatic — Ancient Roman Virtue in the Rural Districts 282

Chapter XIV. The Emperors Assume The Diadem

Part I. — Diocletian Introduces Eastern Titles and Forms of Royalty — "Lord and Emperor" — The Diadem Assumed — Maximian Associated in the Empire — ' Two Subordinate Caesars — Abdication of Diocletian — Constantino Succeeds bis Father, Constantius — He Conquers Maxentius, becomes Master of the West, and subsequently of the Whole Empire — Rome Ceases to be the Mistress of the World xviii CONTENTS.

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Part II.— The Court and Cabinet of Constantine — Titles of Distinction— The Basis and Origin of Modern Nobility— The Splendor of the Consulate— " Patrician " a Personal Title— The Prsetorian Prefect— Rome and Constantinople—The Count of the East and the Vice-Prefects — Governors of Provinces — The Chief Eunuch — The Master of the Offices— The Departments of Internal and Foreign Affairs— The Couriers— A Far-reaching System of Espionage— The Quaestor— The Count of Sacred Largesses —The Treasurer of the Private Estate — Civil Magistrates drawn from the Legal Prof ession— Promotion in the Civil Service 290

Part III. — The Army— Masters-General of Cavalry and Infantry — Military Commanders in the Provinces — Dukes and Counts — Palatines and Borderers — The Guards of the Palace— The Counts of the Domestics — The Legions on the Frontier — Great Numerical Strength of the Army — Conscription severely enforced — Inferiority of the Soldiers, as compared with the Ancient Romans and the Barbarians . . 298

Part IV. — Taxation— The Survey of Landed and other Property — Penalty for Evading the Assessors — The Patrimony of the Monarch ' not Exempt — Various Taxes — Taxation in Kind— The Aureum Coronarium 300

Chapter XV. The Decline And Extinction Op Paganism

Part I. — The Universal Church Purified and United ' by Persecution — Constantine Avows Himself Champion of the Cross — The Edict of Milan — The Christian Hierarchy— The Patriarchal Sees — "Wealth of the Roman Pontiff — Subjects Permitted to Bequeath their Estates to the Clergy — Bishops as Civil Magistrates — The Connection between Church and State — Rights and Privileges of the Clergy — • Bishops Tried by their Brethren — Degradation as a Clerical Punishment — The Synod an Ecclesiastical Legislature and Court — The Right of the Emperor to call a General Council — Toleration of Paganism — Constantine as Supreme Pontiff of the Pagan World — Deified after his Death — Growth of Christianity 303

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Part II.— Discord in the Church— 'the Council of Nice Defines the Orthodox Doctrine — Arius Persecuted — He is Received into Imperial Favor — Division of the Empire between the Sons of Constantine — Constans Upholds the Nicene Creed, and Constantius Espouses Arianism — Athanasius Exiled— A Religious War Threatened and Averted — Constantius Master of the Roman World— He Intimidates the Church into Obedience to his Will— Athanasius again Deposed — Sanguinary Tumults and Insurrections — Thousands of Lives Sacrificed in Religious Strife " 310

Part III. — Paganism in Rome — The Emperor still the Supreme Pontiff— The Augurs — The Vestal Virgins— The Sybilline Leaves— The Lupercalia — The Targets of Mars — The Statue of Victory Removed from the Senate-house — Temples Plundered of their Treasures — An Edict which was not Enforced — Decay of Paganism in the Provinces — Destructive Zeal of the Christians — An Unexpected Revolution 316

Part IV.— The Early History of Julian — Sincerity of His Conversion to Paganism — His Natural Endowments — He Proclaims Toleration, but Insidiously Persecutes the Christians — Temples Reopened, and New Temples Built— The Soldiers Obliged to Sacrifice to the Gods— Attempt to Rebuild the Temple of Jerusalem— Death of Julian— His Testimony to the Truth of the Gospel Narrative 319

Part V. — Jovian Re-establishes the Dominance of Christianity, but Proclaims Universal Toleration— Valentinian and Valens — Valentinian's Admonition to the Clergy, not to Frequent the Houses of Virgins and Widows— Restrictions on the Bequeathing of Property to the Church— Theodosius Crushes out'" the Arians, and Causes the Roman Senate to Declare Christianity the State Religion— The Worship of the Gods Prohibited— Serapis Dethroned — Extinction of the Ancient Faith 3S1

Chapter XVI. Fall Of The Western Empire

Part I. — Condition of the Empire under the System of Administration Founded by Diocletian, and Perfected by

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Constantine— Immunity of Provincial Tyrants— The Municipal System an Instrument of Extortion— The Privileged Orders — Cities Allowed to Elect " Defenders " — The Husbandmen Oppressed— Lands Deserted by their Former Proprietors— Desolation of the once Fertile Campania- Extremes of Luxury and Poverty in Rome— Magnificence of the Imperial City— Palaces of the Nobility— The Multitude Fed at the Public Expense 330

Part II.— The Reign of Honorius— Stilicho Upholds the Majesty of the Empire— His Destruction Compassed by Jealous Courtiers^Alaric Besieges Rome— The City Suffers the Horrors of Famine— The Gothic King Accepts a Ransom— Attalus Elevated to the Imperial Dignity by Alaric— And Deposed— Rome Captured and Pillaged— Death of Alaric 337

Part III. — Honorius Grants Tardy Relief to his Ravaged Provinces — Rome Recovers from the Gothic Invasion— The Assembly of the Seven Provinces of Gaul — Barbarian Aggressions— Africa and Italy still Faithful to the Emperor — Death of Honorius 344

Part IV. — The Career of ^Etius — A Great Commander, but utterly Devoid of Good Principles — The "Weak Government of the Voluptuous Valentinian III — Rome Pillaged by the Vandals — The Condition of the Provinces Growing Worse and Worse — Extortion by Imperial Commissions — Citizens Rise in Revolt Against their Oppressors 346