The medieval church in Scotland : its constitution, organisation and law

Front matter

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BOUGHT WITH THE INCO FROM THE

CHAPTER I The Foundation of the Bishoprics, and of the

Metropolitan Sees ------ 7

The foundation of the medieval bishoprics — Peculiarity in respect to Dunblane — Early attempts to obtain a metropolitan frustrated — The grievance with respect to appeals to the Apostolic See— Grant to hear first appeals made to Bishop Trail in 1 386 — The erection of the Bishoprics of St. Andrews in 1472 and of Glasgow in 1492 to archbishoprics with metropolitan rights — The opposition external and internal to these erections — Exemptions of suffragans from the jurisdiction of metropolitans — Examples of similar exemptions in England.

CHAPTER II The Appointment of Bishops in Scotland during

the Medieval Period - - - - - 18

References to the voice of the people in episcopal elections — The claims of the keledei at St. Andrews — ^The three canonical modes of capitular elections— What was meant by * postulation,' Papal reservation, and ' provisions * — The claims of the Pope gradually advanced, and not resisted in Scotland till a late period — Illustrative examples from Scottish history of the three modes of election and of postulation — Peculiar concession to the city clergy of Aberdeen — In Argyll all the clergy had a voice — Disputes in Galloway on the right of others than the chapter to elect.

vi CONTENTS

CHAPTER III The Scottish Crown and the Episcopate in the

Medieval Period ------ 42

Disputes as to investiture — Possible attempts to influence episcopal elections by holding the elections at the royal court — The congi ifiRre from the king, the rule in Scotland — The royal influence as a matter of fact dominant — Practical concordate between the Crown and the Pope as to the appointment to prelacies in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.

Chapter IV

The choice of the sites of the episcopal sees — Sketch of the constitutions of the cathedrals, and of their internal organisation — The canons of the Scottish cathedrals, except those of St. Andrews and Whitheme, were seculars, united in a 'collegium' but each having a separate prebend — Parochial vicars — The four 'principales personae' — How the dean and canons were appointed — The vicars of the choir and boy choristers — The constitution of the Cathedral of Ross.

CHAPTER V The Cathedrals — Continued ----- 74

Frequency of non-residence — The bishops and canons in some cathedrals — Influence of Lincoln on Moray and of Sarum on Glasgow — The meetings of the chapter — The general Whitsuntide chapter ; other meetings for business — The Saturday chapter — Discipline — Scottish kings canons of Glasgow — Relation of bishop and dean in matters of discipline — Pensionary prebends — Scanty information in respect to St. Andrews — Houses of residence of the secular canons — The building and upkeep of cathedral fabrics — The upkeep of the ornamenta of the cathedrals — Cathedral libraries — The ' annuale ' of the canons.

CONTENTS vii

PAGE

CHAPTER VI Collegiate Churches - - - - - - 105

Collegiate churches of late origin — Constitution : purpose, to serve as dignified chantries : personal residence required : manses attached.

CHAPTER VII Parishes, and the Parochial Clergy - - - 11 1

Origin of parishes — Rectors and vicars ; the appropriation of parish churches; injurious effects of appropriation — 'Ordinary burdens' of parishes — 'Synodals' and 'procurations' — Attempt to secure a decent maintenance for vicars — Great disproportion between the revenues of rectors and vicars — The 'farming' of parish churches — Annexation of benefices to bishoprics, abbeys, and priories forbidden by Parliament — Rectors, not always in holy orders — Manses ; the law as to their construction and upkeep — Clergy engaged for a salary but without fixity of tenure — The parish clerk elected by the parishioners — Meaning of the word ' Plebania ' — Meaning of the term ' Altarage.'

Chapter VIII

The Parish Church and its Privileges. Churches

Specially Privileged as Sanctuaries - - 139

The structure and fiimiture as required by law — The font — The 'chrysom' or 'cude' — Fonts ordinarily restricted to parish churches — Ordinances to preserve the sanctity of churches and churchyards — The right of affording protection to fugitives possessed by all parish churches and churches having the right of sepulture — Churches specially privileged as sanctuaries — Large extent of the grith — Some notable sanctuaries — Sanctuaries not an unmixed evil — Illustrations of the law of sanctuary from Parliamentary legislation.

CHAPTER IX The Revenues of the Church. (I) Lands - - 155

Tenure in frankalmoigne, what it signifies — Such grants not conferring freedom from obligations to the Crown, unless made viii CONTENTS

PAGI

or confirmed by the Crown — Obligation to attend the king'* ' hostings ' — Tenure in frankalmoigne often qualified by reservations — Contrast between England and Scotland — Freedom from ' aids.'

CHAPTER X The Revenues of the Church. (II) Teinds - - 162

Classification of teinds— Payment of tithes enforced by ecclesiastical censures : required under penalty of excommunication : enforced by the Icing and great landowners — What things were tithable — Personal tithes — Rules for the apportionment of predial tithes — Rules as to fisheries — Money equivalents of tithes — How eggs, milk and cheese were tithed — Difficulty of collecting tithes — Questions as to tithes of hay and of mills — Exemptions from tithes — 'Second tithes' — The king's 'teind penny' from escheats — The tithe of the king's can.

CHAPTER XI The Revenues of the Church. (Ill) Offerings - 179

'Oblations' after a time held to be 'dues' — The selling of the sacrament — Statutes enacted against making money out of spiritual ministrations — The corpse-present, an offensive impost,

Chapter XII

The homage and fealty of bishops — The king's claim to dispose of the temporalities of vacant sees, and to present to benefices — Acts of Parliament against 'provisions' — The freedom of Holy Church — The king's claim to the movable estate of deceased bishops — The spiritual estate in parliament : presence of inferior clergy — The parliament deals with matters ecclesiastical — The conflict of civil and ecclesiastical jurisdictions.

Chapter XIII

Diocesan Organisation. Archdeacons and Deans

OF Christianity - - . . . _ 213

Each diocese had at least one archdeacon : St. Andrews and Glasgow had each two — Visitorial powers of archdeacons and

CONTENTS ix

PAGE

deans of Christianity'^ — Functions of the deans — The deaneries of the various dioceses — Ruri-decanal chapters — Archdeacons commonly versed in civil and canon law — Their courts — The word 'archdean' a common and erroneous form for 'archdeacon' — The vicar general.

CHAPTER XIV The Synods or Councils of the Scottish Church 223

The laws regulating the Scottish Church in the medieval period based on the general canon law of the Western Church — Dependence of the Scottish Church upon Rome — Three classes of councils : Legatine, summoned by a legate of the Pope ; Provincial, held under the special privilege granted by the Pope in the year 1225 ; Provincial or synods, after the establishment of the archbishoprics — The ceremonial of the opening of a provincial synod — The character of the business transacted — The constituent members — Episcopal, i.e. diocesan, synods — Note on Scottish legatine councils before the year 1225.

CHAPTER XV The Statutes of Provincial and Diocesan Synods 242

The Scottish statutes contain little that is peculiar to Scotland — The faith of the church — The sacraments : baptism ; confirmation ; penance ; the eucharist ; extreme unction ; matrimony ; orders — The burial of the dead — Holy days in relation to labour — The discipline of the clergy : the discipline of the laity.

CHAPTER XVI The Marriage Law of Medieval Scotland - - 251

The law based on theological conceptions — Publicity enjoined for espousals and for marriage — Validity not dependent on publicity — The publication of banns — The impediments to matrimony arising from the prohibited degrees of consanguinity and affinity — Difference in the modes of the canonists and the civilians in computing degrees of relationship — Affinity, according to the canonists, created by illicit intercourse — Impediments created by spiritual relationship — Espousals and marriages of children : case

X CONTENTS

PAGI

of Elizabeth Mure — Legitimation of children by subsequent marriage of parents — This not sanctioned by the common law of England — Papal dispensations — Peculiar difficulties arising from impediments of consanguinity and affinity in a sparsely populated country.

CHAPTER XVII Canon Law as affected by Papal Dispensations - 272

Pluralities — Dispensations, with provisions to benefices, deprived the bishops of their legitimate influence — Murmuring of bishops — The piling up of preferments — Foreign ecclesiastics given benefices in Scotland — Papal indults to bishops and religious houses — Dispensations for illegitimate birth — Benefices in the Church for the bastards of the royal house and of the great nobles — Dispensation for raising money on church property.

Chapter XVIII

Spiritual jurisdiction of bishops and abbats — The consistorial court : matters coming under its jurisdiction — The officials — Matrimonial causes : what was meant by divorce — Major's complaint as to the subornation of witnesses — Miscellaneous examples of the business of the court — The probate of wills — Threefold division of movable estate — Intestacy — Donative executon appointed by the ordinary — The penalty of excommunication, its gravity.

Chapter XIX

The Celibacy of the Clergy. The Law of the

Church and its Administration - - - 308

The rule of the celibacy of the clergy long disregarded — Attempts to enforce it in England : these unavailing — A similar state of things in Scotland — The Scottish statutes, formidable in language, but only imperfectly enforced — Ordinances of collegiate churches directed against concubinage — The state of the morals of the clergy in the sixteenth century illustrated from provincial statutes — Sir David Lyndesay's satire justified — The subject illustrated from the Calendar of Papal Registers.

CONTENTS xi

CHAPTER XX Papal Taxes, and Payments made to the Roman

Scotland's submission to the demands of the papal exchequer — Peter's pence — Tenths — First Fruits: 'Annates' — 'Commune Servitium' — 'Minuta Servitia' — Bribes for the securing of coveted benefices — Excommunication for delay in paying charges of the Roman Court — Dispensations : Indulgences — Confirmations of Ecclesiastical property.

Index 335

ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

Bishop Dowden _.._.. Frontispiece

Glasgow Cathedral from the West - - - i6 Bishop Elphinstone ---.--.40 King James I. .----...44 King James II. -----_.. 46

King James III. 48

King James IV. .-._._. 50 King James V.- -..___. 52 The Arbuthnot Prayer Book- - - . - 96 The Arbuthnot Missal ------ 98

Aberdeen Book of Hours- ----- 100

Aberdeen Book of Hours- - - - - - 102

The Perth Psalter ---- --104

Crucifix at Ceres - - - - - - -112

Bible in Cathedral Church of Glasgow - - 116 Bronze Censer, Old Church of Garvock - - 116 Chalice of Silver and Wood - - - - - 120

Altar Candlestick - - - - - - -120 xiv ILLUSTRATIONS rAGi

PiETA IN Stone, Churchyard of Banff - - - 124

Stone Figure of Bishop, Rutherglen Church- - 124

Bronze Figure of Christ, Greyfriars Church,

The Ronnell Bell of Birnie - - - - 128

Bell, from Castle of the Thanes of Old Cawdor 128

The Breidbean, or Bell of St. Fillan - - - 128

Bell, at Little Dunkeld 132

Bell, at Knowe of Saverough, Birsay - - - 132

Sculptured Font at Chapel of St. Malrube, Skye 140

Font at Inverkeithing ------ i^o

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

My father was born on the 29th of June, 1840, in Cork, where his father, John Wheeler Dowden, a man well known and much respected for his kindness of heart and generous help in all good works, was a linen merchant in the city. Much has been said of the Irish qualities of my father, but in reality the Dowdens have no claim to Irish blood. The name is an English one, and can be found among the English settlers whom the great Earl of Cork brought over in the seventeenth century from the south of England, and who formed a small colony in the country town of Bandon, not far from Cork. It was a little walled town which boasted strong Protestant sentiments and had over its gates this inscription :

' Jew, Turk, Infidel, or Atheist, May enter here, but not a Papist.'

It was from Bandon that my father's ancestors came. His father was a staunch Presbyterian and his mother, Alicia Bennett, a devout and earnest Churchwoman, but this difFerence in religious opinion did not cause any lack of harmony in the household, and my father constantly spoke with deep gratitude of how much he owed to both father and mother for the religious teaching of his early xvi BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

years. He learned both the Church Catechism and the Shorter Catechism, and was brought up under the gentle discipline of wise and loving parents, in a home where duty and simplicity ruled. At school he was bright and quick in learning, showing at an early age a strong liking for natural and experimental science, and at the same time taking a lively interest in literature and philosophy. He was always ready and anxious to learn, and had a great respect and admiration, which he carried all through life, for those who taught him or who in any way imparted knowledge to him.

He had not many intimate school friends, but his younger and only brother Edward * was, in spite of the three years between them, his most congenial companion. They had many interests in common, the same love of books, the same desire for knowledge ; and though upon some subjects, history in particular, they took opposite views, this did not lessen their affection for each other, which only increased with years. 1 do not know whether in their long arguments on the merits of Cavalier and Roundhead or of Wellington and Napoleon they ever convinced each other. My uncle used to defend the Roundhead, and with real eloquence put forward the claims of the French Revolution and the greatness of Napoleon, only to have some stern historical * fact ' or a crushing quotation flashed upon him from my father. I believe, when shown how splendidly the French fought and with what bravery the Old Guard had always distinguished themselves and how the French ought to have won at Waterloo, my father

1 Professor of English Literature in the University, Dublin, since 1867.

EARLY BOYISH DAYS xvii

would triumphantly get his history (an abridgment of Alison) and bring the controversy to a close by reading with great emphasis ' The Scots Greys, the Queen's Bays, and the Inniskillen Dragoons rode down and over the French at Waterloo'; — a terrible '/«c/' and one to which there was no reply.

But these were early boyish days and hardly worth recalling if it were not that so often ' the child is father of the man,' and that in later years, when arguments of a more weighty kind were brought before my father, he had the same way of stating facts and of bringing many quotations of historical precedent to bear upon his side of the case. At sixteen he gained a classical scholarship at Queen's College, Cork, and about eighteen months later he went to Dublin to be examined for Trinity College, and for some months lived with a cousin of his mother, the Rev. George Salmon (afterwards Provost of Trinity College, Dublin), who was chosen to be his tutor. At that time nothing had been decided with regard to his future career ; indeed, the general opinion was that he would enter the medical profession as he had shown a strong liking for it and had already studied medicine with much interest for a short time before leaving Cork. But his leaning towards the ministry was stronger, and, though no pressure was put upon him at home, both his father and mother readily approved of his decision to work for Holy Orders. In 1858 he entered Trinity College, Dublin, where he distinguished himself, obtaining his B.A. degree in 1861 with First-Class honours in Logic and Ethics, winning thereby a Senior Moderatorship and gold medal. He was not less distinguished in the xviii BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

Divinity course, where he took First-Class in all the examinations.

In the various College Societies he took an active part, the Philosophical and Theological in particular, and in 1862 he delivered the inaugural address before the Theological Society, his subject being, 'Aids to Personal Religion afforded by Mental Science.' It was a remarkable paper for so young a man, and was published, and roused much interest at the time. In 1 864 he was ordained deacon by the Bishop of Kilmore, and the same year he married and went as curate to St. John's Church, Sligo. Here he learned the work and organization of a large parish, with its four schools and a country mission, while the relationship between him and his rector, the Rev. Edward Day, was of the most delightful kind.

In 1865 the Bishop of Kilmore ordained him priest, and in 1867 he was made perpetual curate (incumbent) of Calry Church, Sligo. This was also a large parish with plenty of work to be done, some of which, I fancy, cannot have been very congenial to a man with such a scholarly bent of mind, but he always looked back with great pleasure on the eight years he spent so happily in Sligo, where he gained much experience, made life-long friendships, and was ' passing rich ' on ^^70 a year.

My recollection of my father at this time is of a tall man with wonderfully bright blue eyes and very dark hair, who, though in a sense awe-inspiring, was much sought after by his children. The study, where ' noise, toys, and crying ' were not allowed, was a paradise for us, and what happy hours we had there ! Somehow toys did find their way into it, and my father's books, even

WORK AT SLIGO xix

folios when not too heavy, were found very useful to build castles and forts with, while our laughter and what was called ' subdued merriment ' did not come under the head of noise. The last part of the rule was more rigorously kept, though I do remember going to the study in tears and having them dried there. We did, I think, try to be quiet while my father worked, and when he had finished his writing he would play with us, or read to uSj or tell us wonderful and delightful stories.

In 1870, while still in Sligo, he was made chaplain to Earl Spencer, Lord-lieutenant of Ireland. His duties as vice-regal chaplain were light, and meant little more than going to Dublin to preach in the Chapel Royal when it was his turn to do so. Two years later he was appointed assistant curate to Archdeacon Lee at St. Stephen's, Dublin.

During this time the Church of Ireland was much disturbed by the proposed revision of the Prayer Book, and the minds of many scholars were turned towards the study of the various forms of liturgy used in churches other than their own, and possibly it was in this way that my father's interests in the Scottish Episcopal Church were awakened. But of that I am not sure. He was already acquainted with its history, and was familiar with its Communion Office, the beauty of which no doubt appealed to him. A personal friend, the Rev. Percy Robinson, was headmaster of Glenalmond, and I believe it was due to him that my father's name was brought to the notice of the late Bishop Forbes of Brechin. He, with the other Scottish Bishops, In 1874, offered my father, much to his surprise, the post of Pantonian

XX BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

Professor of Theology in the Theological College, which at that time was at Glenalmond, Perthshire.

He accepted the ofFer and came to Scotland, throwing himself enthusiastically into his new work, nor did his ardour seem to lessen on his finding himself a professor with only one student. That student, however, wished to learn, and was able to profit by the zeal and energy of his professor. But the most ardent teacher with only one pupil must have many hours to spare, and these my father devoted to the careful study of the Scottish Communion Office, a subject upon which, in later years, he became the accepted authority. He was very happy at Glenalmond, and the students increased to five or six in number, which gave a little more scope to his energy.

In 1875, a serious fire broke out, and, in spite of the excellent services rendered by both the boys and masters, half the college was burned to the ground. I have heard my father describe with much amusement the formality with which the alarming news was announced to him. He was working in the library, called the Jolly Library after the saintly bishop to whom the books in it had belonged, when, after a gentle tap at the door, one of the senior boys came quietly in and waited to be questioned. My father was rather surprised, as he had nothing whatever to do with the school or the boys, who only came to his house (which was part of the college) by invitation, or with a note from some of the masters, and he at once asked what was wanted. To which the youthful herald, with many apologies for intruding, replied, * I thought you might like to know. Sir, that the college is on fire 1 ' As soon as my father's living possessions were in safety his

FIRE AT GLENALMOND xxi

thoughts went to the books belonging to the Theological Library, and he ran to the room in the central tower where most of these were kept, to see if there was still a possibility of saving them. Then he and his students were seen running up and down the long staircase which led to the library, their arms laden with folios, which were deposited in some safe place out of reach of the flames. But the fire spread rapidly, and the time for saving the books became so limited, that the only way of doing so was to throw the remaining volumes from the windows. To do this with as little harm to them as possible was the next thing to be thought of. To fling them far out with a dexterous swing of the arm, which sent them whirling horizontally through the air, so that they should not open in their fall, was found to be the best method, and in this way most, if not all of the books were saved. They can still be seen in Coates Hall, Rosebery Crescent, Edinburgh, where, in spite of the traces of mud and water which many of them bear to this day, they now form a useful and valuable part of the library of the Theological College.

After the fire some of the bishops thought it would be advisable to move the Theological CoUege to Edinburgh, its original home, the remoteness of Glenalmond having been found a real drawback to the students, and after some difficulty this was agreed to, and the college was moved to Edinburgh. The students lived in rooms, and my father lectured to them, at first in his own lodgings and afterwards in old Coates House, Manor Place. Later on, a house was taken which served as a college, a vice-principal was appointed to live with the students, and my father, who had taken his D.D. degree at xxii BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

Trinity College, Dublin, in 1876, lectured to them daily. His great desire that only the very best men, well educated and well trained, should take Holy Orders, made him extremely strict both as a teacher and in examinations ; but at the same time there was no trouble he would not willingly take, in order to help or encourage his pupils in careful study, and he made every effort to inspire them with a love of accurate work for its own sake. He always put his best into whatever he did himself, and could not tolerate careless or inaccurate work in others. Teaching with him meant instilling into the pupil an absolute and thorough knowledge of the subject. He would explain the matter again and again with marvellous clearness and with all the fire of his illuminative power, and would give examples ad infinitum till he thought all possible doubt had been removed.

Then he would sometimes ask ' Now do you understand ? ' And if he detected a shadow of uncertainty in an affirmative reply, he promptly placed himself in the position of pupil by the alarming demand, ' Very well, then, explain it to me.' It was a sound, though sometimes painful, test of how far the student had grasped the subject in hand. Still teaching was a labour of love to him, and when his students distinguished themselves in the Oxford and Cambridge examinations (preliminary to Holy Orders) as they not infrequently did, no one was prouder of them or derived greater pleasure from their success, than my father.

Perhaps one of his most marked characteristics was the immense pleasure he took in the success of others. A recognition of thoughtful study, or an honour bestowed

SEE OF EDINBURGH xxlii

upon someone for careful or original work gave him infinitely greater pleasure than any honour or glory for himself would have done.

In 1884, he published The Annotated Scottish Communion Office, which he dedicated to the bishops and clergy of the American Church. This book is, in itself, an example of the careful and painstaking labour he gave to all his work, and, though now out of print for many years, is still the standard work on this subject.

In 1885-6, he was Donnellan Lecturer in the University of Dublin, and, in 1886-7, Select Preacher there, and Select Preacher in Cambridge in 1888.

In 1886, when the See of Edinburgh was vacant through the death of Bishop Cotterill, my father was mentioned as his successor, but on hearing that Canon Liddon was also going to be proposed, he asked to have his own name withdrawn. Canon Liddon, however, while considering the offer of the bishopric ' the greatest honour that had ever been done him in the whole course of his life,' did not see his way to accept it, and my father was then elected. He was consecrated on the 21 st of September, 1886, by the Bishops of St. Andrews, Aberdeen, Argyll, Brechin, Glasgow, Moray and Ross, and the Bishop of Durham (Dr. J. B. Lightfoot), who travelled from Braemar to be present at the ceremony, a mark of esteem and friendship which my father much appreciated. The Rev. Dr. Salmon, whose friendship my father valued so much, came from Dublin, and preached a remarkable sermon on ' Episcopacy in relation to Unity.' The change from professorial duties to those of a diocesan was great, and my father felt all the responsibility of coming after so xxiv BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

great a man as Bishop Cotterill, but he was comparatively young, forty-six, and he threw himself with his usual energy into his new life. He could not, however, entirely break his connection with the students, and he retained the post of Bell Lecturer at the college, where he lectured once a week during the term. In this way he never lost touch with the students, and his interest in them and in the welfare of the college was keen to the very end. His last lecture was given there two days before his death.

During his long episcopate of over twenty-three years he laboured with untiring zeal for the welfare of his diocese and the good of the Church at large, putting his best unsparingly into all his work, and giving gladly of his knowledge and learning to all who sought them. He was always ready to listen to his clergy, or to members of their satisfied or dissatisfied congregations, to help, to encourage, to advise, or to admonish if need be, and no one ever came to him in a difficulty without getting careful and thoughtful help. He was a true scholar ; his search after truth, his love of accuracy, his determination to find out facts before giving judgment made his opinion of real value ; and his great fairness of mind, his reverent handling of history, and his ready and loyal obedience all through life to those placed in authority over him made him, when he became a bishop, a firm and wise ruler of men.

In controversies he was a most generous opponent, and he must often have found it difficult to restrain his quick and trenchant power of reply, which sometimes flashed out like a rapier thrust to the complete disarming of his

WORK AT EDINBURGH xxv

adversary. He was, however, very indifFerent to attacks made upon himself, and in the early days of his episcopate these were fairly frequent and sometimes venomous, and on these occasions when asked what he was going to do, he generally replied, ' Oh, I shall take no notice.' But when some other person was the victim of an unfair attack, especially if that person were not in a position to defend himself, then there was no hesitation, and my father showed himself to be a vigorous fighter and a fearless champion on behalf of what he thought right and just, but he never wished to hurt or wound, and it was only with shams or ' superior people ' that he ever dealt really severely. His reason for not saying sharp things, which would have displayed his wit and power of repartee, was very simple and characteristic of him, and though the sparkling of his eyes sometimes betrayed a brilliant satirical thought, it often remained unsaid, because to say it ' wouldn't have been kind.'

During the summer of 1890 my father was far from well, but he made very light of it, and no real attention was paid to the matter at the time. In November he became extremely ill, and in January, 1891, a serious operation was thought advisable. Happily, under the care of clever doctors and most skilful surgeons, he made a complete recovery. His own brightness and gaiety made the long months of his convalescence full of happiness for us and those around him. To ' bear much suffering with Christian resignation ' suggests a certain amount of gloom, and gloom was unknown in the presence of my father, nor can the word resignation ever be applied to his cheerful and ready acceptance of life with xxvi BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH