The reformation

Front matter

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1^73

Chapter I

INTRODUCTION ; THE GENERAL CHARACTER Or THE REFORMA- TION.

PAOK.

Four principal events of modern history 1

Long historical preparation of these events .... 1 Agency of individuals not to be undervalued . ... 2

Theories in respect to the Reformation 2

An astrological hypothesis 2

Theory that it was a quarrel of monastic orders ... 3 That it was an academical dispute . . . . . .4

That it was a new phase of the old conflict of Popes and Emperors 4 That it was an insurrection against authority : (advanced by Gui-

zot) 4

That it was a transitional step towards Rationalism . . .6 The Reformation primarily a religious event .... 8 Judaizing character of mediaeval Christianity : constant reaction

of the spiritual element ....... 8

Protestantism positive as well as negative .... 9

It has an objective factor 9

It practically asserted the right of private judgment . . 10 It was a part of the general progress of society . . . .10 General characteristics of the entire period .... 10 Two-fold aspect of the Reformation — religious, and political or

secular 11

Chronological limits of the era 12

CHAPTER H.

THE KISE OF THE PAPAL HIERARCHY AND ITS DECLINE THROUGH THE CENTRALIZATION OF NATIONS.

Protestantism rejected priestly authority 13

The relation of sacerdotal authority to Papal supremac,v . 14

X CONTENTS.

The new Dispensation spiritual, in contrast with the old . . 14 Absence of a mediatorial priesthood . . . . • 14

Officers of the primitive Church ^^

Functions of a priesthood gradually associated with the ministry 16

Growth of a hierarchy ^°

Ircnajus and TertuUian make the Church the door of access to

Causes of the precedence of the See of Rome . • .17

Acknowledged in the East, because Rome is the capital ; claimed

in the West on account of Peter -20

Accession of Constantine (311) I Church not merged in the State,

Power of the Emperors over the Church 21

Decline of the Empire increases the authority of the Roman

bishop . 21

The Papacy exalted, yet endangered, by the fall of the "Western

Spread of Arianism and Mohammedanism 22

Fortunate alliance of the Papacy with the Franks (750) . 22

Rescue of the Papacy by Pepin and Charlemagne . . .23 Significance of the coronation of Charlemagne (800) . . 23 Eifect of the fall of his Empire on the Papacy . . . .24 The Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals (circa 850) .... 24

Enforced by jSTicholas I. (858-867) 25

Anarchy in Italy : the period of pomocracy ; intervention of

Hildebrand (1073-1085) and his reforming plan : theory of the

Papacy and the Empire : their inevitable conflict . . 26

Advantages of the Papacy in this conflict . . . .27

Victory of the Popes ; Henry IV. , the Worms Concordat (1122) ;

Culmination of Papal power ; Innocent III. (1198-1216) . 29

His theory of the Papal office . . . . . . .29

Rise of the spirit of nationalism ; its various manifestations . 31 Benefits of the Papacy in the Middle Ages ; approach of another

National languages and literatures 33

Anti-hierarchical spirit of the vernacular writers . . .35

The same spirit in the Legists ...... 36

Reaction against the Papacy; Boniface VIH. (1294-1303) . . 36 Conflict of Boniface with Philip the Fair . . . .37

CONTENTS. XI

Declining prestige of the Papacy; the Babylonian captivity

(1309-1377) 38

Character of the Papacy at Avignon ; Petrarch's testimony . 39

■ Opposition from Germany and England 39

The Monarchists against the Papists 40

Attacks upon Papal usurpations by writers ; Marsilius of Padua

and William of Occam 41

The Gallican or constitutional theory ; the Reforming Councils

(1409-1443) 43

Increasing sway of national and secular, in the room of ecclesiastical feelings, in the fifteenth century 44

Consolidation of monarchies ; England, France, Spain . . 44 Secular and worldly character of the Popes . . . .44

Sixtus IV. (1471-84) ; Innocent VIH. (1484-92) ; Alexander VI.

Character of Leo X. (1513-21) ; judgment of Sarpi, Pallavicini,

Muratori, Guicciardini . . . . . . . .46

The importance of the Popes, chiefly political . . .48'

The concessions to them from Princes more apparent than real . 48 An illustration in the repeal of the Pragmatic Sanction (1516) 48' Domination of secular and political interests, seen in the contests

of Charles V. and Francis 1 49

The development of nationalism and the secularizing of the Papacy, at the beginning of the sixteenth century . . ,50

CHAPTER m.

SPECIAL CAUSES AND OMENS OP AN ECCLESIASTICAL REVOLU- TION PRIOR TO THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.

Medieval Christianity characterized by legalism ... 52 Forms of reaction against it : dissent from dogmas ; attacks on the usurpations and abuses of the clergy ; opposition to the excessive esteem of ceremonies and austerities . . .53 Consequences of a possible increase of intelligence ... 53 Two classes of forerunners of the Reformation . . . .53

Anti-sacerdotal sects 54

The Catharists (Albigenses) 55

The Waldenses; their origin (1170) 56

The Franciscan Spirituals ; the Fratricelli 67

The Beguines and Beghards 57

What is indicated by the rise of these sects . . . .58

XU CONTENTS.

The conservative or Gallican Reformers 69

Radical Reformers ; John Wickliffe (1324-1384) and his opinions 59

How he was protected 59

The Lollards 60

John Huss (1373-1415) ; his predecessors; Matthias of Janow 61

The character and principles of Huss 62

Huss and Wicklifie on the authority of prelates and magistrates 62 John Wessel (1420-89) ; Luther's opinion of him . . .63

The Mystics ; character of Mysticism 65

Mysticism among the Schoolmen ; Bernard, Bonaventura . 65

John Tauler (1290-1361)1 the "German Theology" . . .66

The " Imitation of Christ " 67

The Revival of Learning; begins in Italy, Dante (1265-1321) ;

Petrarch (1304-74); Boccaccio (1313-75) . . . .67 Spread of the literary spirit ; consequences to the Church . 68 Benefits and faults of Scholasticism ; causes of its downfall . 69

It had lost its vitality ; effect of Nominalism .... 70 Renewed study of the Fathers and of the Scriptures . . .71 Sceptical spirit of Humanism in Italy ; influence of the classic

school on the Church of Italy 72

Semi-pagan tone of politics and ethics ; Macchiavelli (1469-1527) 73 Religious tone of Humanism in Germany ; Reuchlin (1455-1522) 74 His victory over the Monks . . . . . . . .75

Humanism and the Universities ; Wittenberg (1502) . . 76

Humanism in England ; Colet, Erasmus, More . . . .76

The "Eutopia" ; its liberal ideas on Religion .... 76

Erasmus (1467-1536) the leader of Humanism . . • .77

His fame and acquirements 78

His " Praise of Folly " 79

His chastisement of ecclesiastical follies and abuses . . 81

His editions of the Fathers and of the New Testament . .81

Diffusion of his writings 82

What may be inferred from their character and popularity . .82 Recapitulation ; symptoms of the rise of a new order of tUngs . 88

CONTENTS. xiii

CHAPTER IV.

LUTHER AND THE GERMAN REFORMATION TO THE DIET OF AUGSBURG, 16S0.

Protestantism congenial to the German mind . . . .85 Luther the hero of the Reformation .... .87

His birth (1483) and parentage

Studies at Erfurt (1501-5) ; enters a convent (1506) Made a Professor at Wittenberg (1508) .... His literary and theological attainments ....

His religious experience

Sees that justification is by faith

Origin of indulgences ; the Scholastic doctrine . Luther opposes the sale of indulgences by Tetzel (1516) . Luther posts his ninety-five Theses (1617) ; their contents .

Their effect in Germany

Attacks and replies ; he meets Cajetan at Augsburg (1618) . 96

Accedes to the truce offered by Miltitz (1519). . . . 97 The Leipsic Disputation (1519); Philip Melancthon . . .97 Melancthon's character ; Luther's geniality and humor . . 98 He asserts that the primacy of the Pope is jure iumano . . 99 Effect of the Leipsic Disputation upon his studies and opinions 99 He appeals to the laity ; Address to the Nobles (1520) . .100

Writes " the Babylonian Captivity of the Church " (1520) . 100 Writes on the " Freedom of a Christian Man " (1520) . . 101 Is excommunicated ; burns the Papal bull (1520) . . . 101 Commotion produced in Germany ; he finds political, religious,

and literary allies 102

Political condition of Germany ; weakness of the central government 108

Abortive efforts under Maximilian (1493-1519) to organize the

Empire 104

Discontent and disorder ; complaints by the knights, the cities,

the peasantry 104

The election of Charles V. (1519) : consequent alarm in Europe 105

Rivalship of Charles V. and Francis T. (1515-1547) ; its

grounds, the strength of the rivals respectively . . .106 Character of Charles Y. : his conduct in the affair of the Reformation .......... 101

XIV CONTENTS.

Luther summoned to the Diet ofWorms (1521) ; his journey 108

Appears before the Diet ; refuses to recant . • • .110

Placed under the ban of the Empire ....

Alliance of the Emperor with Leo X.; the terms of it . .

Luther at the Wartburg (1521-22)

His- occupations; labors on the translation of the New Testament .......•••

Radical movement of Carlstadt : Luther returns to Wittenberg (1522)

He restores order ; his vast labors .....

The Council of Regency declines to suppress Lutheranism

The character of Pope Adrian VL (1522-23) and Pope Cleinent VIL (1523-34)

The Diet at Nuremberg (1524) ; remands the subject of the Worms decree to the several princes ....

Union of Catholic princes and bishops ; division of the Nation

Protestant League of Torgau (1526)

Battle of Pavia (1525) ; confederacy against Charles .

The Diet of Spires (1526) refuses to enforce the Worms Edict

Sack pf Rome and triumph of the Emperor (1527')

Repressive action of the Diet of Spires (1529) ; the Protest

Opposition of Luther to armed resistance ....

The Diet of Augsburg (1530) ; situation and spirit of Charles

The Augsburg Confession and Apology ....

Decree adverse to the Protestants ......

The courage and fidelity of the Elector John

Luther at Coburg (1530) ; his correspondence

His marriage with Catharine von Bora (1525) .

His motives ; effect of his example

His controversy with King Henry "Vlil. (1522) .

The intemperance of Luther's langauge, how explained .

His apologetic letter to Henry VIIL (1525)

The position of Erasmus in relation to the Lutheran movement 127

His gradual estrangement from Luther and his cause . .129

Merits of the controversy . . . . . . .181

Inability of Humanism to effect a Reform 132

The peasants' war (1525) ; how far owing to Protestantism . 133

Luther supports the princes 134

113 114 114

CONTENTS. XT

CHAPTER V.

THE GERMAN KEFORMATION TO THE PEACE OF ATJGSBTJEO ; ZWINGLE AND THE SWISS (GERMAN) REFORMATION.

The character of the Swiss ; they serve as mercenaries in the

armies of France and of the Pope 136

Birth of Zwingle (1484) ; his native character ; his education . 137 At Glarus (1506-16) he opposes the system of pensions and of

hired service under the French 138

At Einsiedeln (1516-18) preaches salvation hy the grace of

Christ alone 139

Adopts the principle of the exclusive authority of the Bible . 139 Preaches against indulgences ; is established at Zurich (1519) . 139

His qualities as a man and a preacher 140

Public disputation (1523) ; the council of the city sustains him 141

His doctrines ; a. second disputation 141

Zurich becomes a separate Protestant Church (1524) . . 141

Zwingle's " Commentary on True and False Religion " (1525) 142 His view respecting the salvation of the heathen . . . 142 The Reformation in Basel (1529) ; Berne (1528) ; St. Gall (1528).; ,

Schaffhausen (1529) 143

The ecclesiastical revolution is also a political one . . . 143 Contrast of Luther and Zwingle ; their religious experience . 144

Comparative conservatism of Luther 144

Mingling of patriotism and religion in Zwingle . . . 145 Luther led the resistance to the Church of Rome . . . 146 The Eueharistic controversy between the Lutherans and the

Swiss 147

History of the doctrine of the Eucharist .... 147

Three opinions ; Luther, Zwingle, Calvin 148

Ground of Luther's vehemence against the Zwinglian doctrine 149

The Conference at Marburg (1529) 152

The result ; subsequent revival of the controversy (1543) . 153 Catastrophe of the Swiss Reformation ; war between the Catholic and Protestant Cantons 154

Death of Zwingle (1531) 155

The Treaty of Peace ; Protestantism checked .... 156 Formation of the League of Smalcald (1531) .... 156 The Emperor disabled for ten years (J 532-42) from carrying

out the Augsburg Decree 156

Catholic League (1538) 157

XVI CONTENTS.

Conferences of the opposing parties (1 537-41) ; Contarini . .167 The League of Smalcald, how weakened .... 158

Maurice of Saxony joins the Emperor (1546) .... 159

Last days of Luther 159

The relations of Luther and Melancthon to each other . .160 Melancthon's funeral address on Luther (1546) . . . 162 Luther's power and influence ; remarks of Dollinger . . . 163 The Smalcaldic war (1546-47) ; defeat of the Protestants atMuhl-

The Augsburg Interim (1548) ; Charles's plan of pacification . 164 He is disappointed ; action of the Council of Trent . . 164 Union of Paul in. and Francis L against him (1547) . .165

Resistance to the Augsburg Interim in North Germany ; the

Leipsic Interim (1548) • . 165

Better prospects of Protestantism 156

Maurice turnS against Charles ; drives him out of Innspruck

(1552) 167

Peace of Augsburg (1555) ; the jus reformandi : the Ecclesiastical Reservation 168

Abdication of Charles (1556) 168

CHAPTER VI.

THE REFOKMATION IN THE SCANDINAVIAN KINGDOMS, IN THE SLAVONIC NATIONS, AND IN HUNGAKT.

Spread of the Reformation ; agency of Germans ; influence of

The Scandinavian kingdoms; the Union of Calmar (1397) . 170 Christian II. of Denmark (1513-23) favors Protestantism, then

draws back 170

He is deposed and succeeded by Frederic I. (1523-33) . . 171 Spread of Lutheranism in Denmark in his reign . . . 1 73 Under Christian HI. the Reformation is legalized . . . 1 73 Constitution of the Danish Protestant Church . . . .173 Democratic movements in Lubeck and other cities, in connection

with the Reformation 1 75

Establishment of Protestantism in Norway (1537) . . .175 Olaf and Laurence Petersen preach Protestantism in Sweden

(1519) 176

Gustavua Vasa (1523-60) favors it 17{

CONTENTS. XVU

ft is adopted at the Diet of Westeras (1527) .... 177 What was done with ecclesiastical property . . . ,177 Failure of subsequent efforts to restore Catholicism . 177

Effect of the execution of Huss in Bohemia (1415) . . .177 Hussite movement was both religious and national . . 178

The demand of the cup for the laity ; history of the practice of

witholding it 17S

The Prague University declares for the Utraquists . . 179

Division of the Utraquists ; the Taborites 179

The Articles of Prague, the platform of the Utraquists (1421) . 180

Three Crusades fail to subdue them 181

They are heard at the Council of Basel (1433) .... 181

The Compactata • 182

Conflict of Calixtines and Taborites 182

The rise of the Brethren in Unity (circa 1450) . . ,182 Favorable reception of Lutheranism by the Hussites . . . 183 The Utraquists refuse to join Ferdinand in the Smalcaldic war 183 Subsequent persecution of Bohemian Protestants . . .185 Religious condition of Poland at the time of the Reformation . 185

How Protestantism was introduced 185

The spread of the new doctrine in Polish Prussia and in Livonia

(1524) 185

Sigismund II. (1548-72) favorable to it 186

Religious dissension among Protestants : spread of Unitarianism 186

Union of Lutherans, Calvinists, and Brethren, in the Synod of

Equality of rights granted to all the Churches . . . .188 The Reformation introduced into Hungary . . . .188 Effect of the civil war (1526) upon its progress .... 189 Strife between the Calvinists and Lutherans . . .190

CHAPTER VII.

JOHN CALVIN AND THE GENEVAN REFORMATION.

Calvin belongs to the second generation pf Reformers . .192

His birth (1509), family, and education 192

Studies at Paris; studies law at Orleans and Bourses . .193

His mental power and habits of study 192

Publishes Seneca's treatise on " Clemency " (1532) ; his motive 1?4 b xviii CONTENTS.

EEs conversion (1532) ^^'

His reserve and love of retirement ^^°

Obliged to fly from Paris (1533) ; at Angoulgme ; at Beam ;

returns to Paris ^°°

Obliged again to fly, on account of placards against the mass

(1535) . . . 196

His first theological work; the " Psychopannychia " (1534) . 197 At Basel (1535) ; studies Hebrew ; writes the "Institutes" . 197

His motive in composing this work 197

His characteristics as a writer and a man . . . • .198 His adoption of the Bible as the sole standard of doctrine . 199 His conception of the Church and reverence for it . . . 200

His doctrine of predestination 200

Is attached to the doctrine on practical grounds . . . 201

His opinion compared with that of Augustine . . . 202

His ability as a commentator 202

;Not 3,n extremist in respect to forms and rites . . . 203 The acerbity of his temper ....... 204

His piety tinged with the Old Testament spirit . . . 205 His homage to law and sense of the exaltation of God . . 205 Less broad in his sympathies than Luther .... 206

His greatness of mind and of character 206

Visits the court of the Duchess of Ferrara (1536) . . . 207'

Stops at Geneva on his return (1536) 207

Geneva subject to Savoy ; achieves its independence (1533) . 208

Protestant influences from Berne 208

Expulsion of the Bishop from Geneva and establishment of Protestantism (1535) 209

Farel (1489-1565) ; his history and character; his preaching at

Geneva 209

■Discontent there with the new ecclesiastical system . . 210

State of morals 210

Farel moves Calvin to remain and assist him (1536) . . 211

Strict regulations of Church discipline 212

Opposition to them ........ 212

The preachers refuse to administer the Sacrament . . . 213 They are banished by the citizens (1538) .... 213

Calvin resides at Strasburg ; attends the German religious Conferences (1639-1541) 213

His opinion of Luther ; his relations to Melancthon . . 214

His marriage 215

Is recalled to Geneva (1541), and why 21£

CONTENTS. XLX

His letter to Sadolet 216

His reluctance to return 21 7

The Genevan civil and ecclesiastical system . . . . 21 7 The Little Council ; the Consistory ..... 218 Vigilant supervision of the people by preachers and elders . 219

The Venerable Company 219

Calvin takes part in framing the civil laws . . . .219

How the preachers were chosen . . . . . .219

Disaffection arises ; the Libertines 220

Combination of diiferent classes of Calvin's opponents . . 221

Severity of the Genevan laws 221

Religious intolerance ; its history 222

Practiced in the Middle Ages 223

The Reformers did not advocate toleration .... 224 Conflicts of Calvin and efforts to intimidate him . . . 225 Bolsec banished (1551) for assailing the doctrine of predestination 225

Expulsion of Castellio (1544) 226

Michael Servetus ; his history and character .... 226 His book on the " Errors of the Trinity " (1531) . . .227 His second book — the " Restoration of Christianity " . . 228 Tried for heresy before a Roman Catholic Court at Vienne . 228

Proof furnished from Geneva 228

He escapes and comes to Geneva (1553) 229

Is arrested and tried 229

Is convicted and burned at the stake 230

Acency of Calvin in the transaction ; verdict of Guizot . 231

The execution of Servetus generally approved .... 232 Further efforts of the Libertines; their final overthrow (1555) 233 Calvin's multiplied labors and vast influence . . . 234

His last years ; the variety of his employments ; his infirmities of

body 235

His last illness (1564) ; his interview with the Council . . 236

His interview with the preachers 237

Estimate of his character 238

Calvinism lays emphasis on the sovereignty of God . . . 239

Why favorable to civil liberty 239

I does not surrender the government of the Church to the civil

authority 239

Its church organization is republican 240

It dwarfs earthly sovereignty by exalting the divine . . . 240 Compared with Romanism in its view of the civil authority . 24]

XX CONTENTS.

CHAPTER Vm.

THE REFORMATION IN PRANCE.

The Sorbonne and Parliament oppose doctrinal innovations . 242 Effect of the repeal of the Pragmatic Sanction (1516) . 242

Reform emanates from Humanism 242

Francis I. (1515-47) ; the patron of learning and art . . 2-13 Lefevre (1450-1536), the Father of the Reformation; hiss*,udies

and writings 243

His mystical turn ; his pupil, Bri9onnet .... 244

Hostility of the Sorbonne and of Parliament to Lefevre and his

school 244

Heresy suppressed in Meaux (1525) ..... 245 Margaret, Queen of Navarre (1492-1549) ; her sympathy with

the Mystical School 245

Her writings ; she favors the Protestants without joining them 246 Francis I. opposes the Sorbonne ; supports his sister . . .247 Changes his course ; engages in persecution .... 248

Doubtful position of France respecting the Reformation . . 248 Rome, Renaissance, the Reformation ; the three rivals . . 249 Why Calvinism was disliked ....... 250

Spirit of Loyola and the Catholic Reaction .... 250

Vacillation of Francis I. and its consequences . . . 251 He persecutes the Protestants (1534) ; courts the alliance of the

Lutheran princes ........ 252

Spread of Protestantism in France in his reign . . . 253

Influence of Geneva and of Calvin 253

Henry H. (1547-59) ; his hostility to the Reformation . . 254 Its progress .......... 254

The Calvinists hold a general Synod (1559) .... 255

Persecution after the treaty of Cateau-Cambresis ; death of

Heroism of the sufferers 256

How the Huguenots became a political party .... 256 Catharine de Medici ; her relations to Henry and his mistress ;

and her character . . . . . . . .257

Francis H. (1559-60) is controlled by the Guises ; their history

and character •■....... 257

Discontent of the Bourbons and Chatillons .... 258

Connection of the great nobles with the Calvinists . . . 269

CONTENTS. XXI

Calvin preaches to them submission ; their patience . . . 260

The conspiracy of Amboise (1560) 260

Its consequences ; the Edict of Eomorantin (1560) . . . 261 Coligny supports the petition of the Protestants for liberty of

The States General called together at Orleans (1560) . .262 Arrest of Cond^ ; Navarre placed under surveillance . . 262

Plot for the extirpation of Protestantism 262

Frustrated by the death of Francis II. (1660) . . .263

Catharine de Medici ; her virtual guardianship of Charles IX.

Influence of L'Hospital 263

Strength of the Protestants 264

Guise, Montmorenci, and St. Andr^ form the Triumvirate . 264

The Colloquy at Poissy (1561) ; Beza 265

The Edict of St. Germain (1562) grants a measure of tolerar

tion 266

The Massacre of Vassy (1562) begins the civil wars . . .267

The Huguenots fought in self-defense 268

Siege of Rouen; battle of Dreux (1562); assassination of

The Edict of Amboise (1563) ; the character of it . . 269

The Huguenots take up arms ; Peace of Longjumeau (1568) . 270

Conference at Bayonne (1666) 270

Renewal of the war under Spanish influence ; battles of Jarnac

and Moncontour (1569) 271

Treaty of St. Germain (1570) ; reasons that influenced the Court

to make peace ; fortified towns placed in the hands of the

Huguenots 272

Political crisis in Europe ; will France make war on Spain ? . 272 Proposal that Henry of Navarre shall marry Margaret of Val-

ois 273

Coligny comes to Court ; his character 273

The origin of the Massacre of St. Bartholomew (1572) . . 273

Had it been planned earlier ? 275

Joy at Madrid and at Rome 277

Effect of the massacre on the surviving Huguenots . . .277 The party of the Politiques or Liberal Catholics is formed . 277

Organization of the League 278

Position of Henry IH. (1674-89) 278

Excommunication of Navarre and Conde by Sixtus V. (1685) . 279 War of the " Three Henries " (1586) 27S

XXll