The Crimea and Odessa: journal of a tour, with an account of the climate and vegetation

Front matter

CORNELL

UNIVERSITY

LIBRARY

Chapter I

General observations — Hospitality of the Caucasians — The wanderings of Ulysses — The Cossacks and their expeditions on the Black Sea — Their songs and tales — The Cossacks guards of the frontier — Kertch and her commerce — Panticapaeum — The Museum — The skull of a Macrocephalus — Tmntaracan — A mausoleum of the latest period — Barrows — Prince Herheulidse — Ferro-cyanide . . . Pp. 1-24

CHAPTER II. THEODOSIA (kAPFa) AND KAEA-S0-BASAE

Pampas and Steppe — The peninsula of Kertch and tongue of land Arabat — Tartars — Theodosia — Mr. von Smitten — Kaffa — Turkish barbarities — Desolation of the Crimea — The houses and situation of Theodosia — A German inn ^-Crimean wines — People of vaj-jous nations — The Jews — The condition of the ground — Flocks of sheep — Camels — Post-carriages — Kara-Su-Basar — Artisans — Schirinfelsen Pp. 25-48

CHAPTER HI.

SIMFBEOPOL.

The Taurian hotel — The Government — Tartars — The Kalga Sultan — Sahin-Ghiray — Ak-Metchet — The New Town — The cathedral — Bazaar — A Courland Jew — Cattle — Fruit and orchards — The valley of the Salghir — Apples — Mr. von Steven — Mr. von Hiibner — A Eussian labourer — Tartar management — Departure — Character of the country Pp. 49-68

X CONTENTS.

Chapter IV

The ravine of Juruk Su — Dress of the Tartars — Kebabdshi — Ekmedshi — The palace of the Khans — Hall of Judgment — Harem — Maria Pototzka — Fearful vengeance — The Fountain of Tears — Mausoleum — A Tartar cemetery — Gipsies — A rock church — The Jewish fortress — Rabbi Solomon Beim — The Karaites — Adherents to the Talmud — Historical account — The synagogue — The Valley of Jehoshaphat Pp. 69-94

GHAPTEE V.

SEVASTOPOL.

The tongue of land — Relative position of the ground — Chersonesus — The Goths — Origin of name Sebaetopol — Harbour — Fort Nicholas — Docks — Quay — Library — Church — Kosarsky — Catherine II. — Boulevard — Fleet of the Black Sea — Tchemaia Eetchka — Inkerman — Canal' — Tunnel — Caverns — Ravine of Otchakov — A superannuated sailor Pp. 95-123

Chapter VI. Balaexava And The Coast-eange

Ancient Cherson — Balaklava — The Lsestrigonians of Homer — Pai-- thenium — Expedition by moonlight — Baidar — The new road — A mountain-pass — Beautiful view — Vegetation — Kirkineis — High prices — The coast-range — Its structure — Precipice of Jura limestone — Taila Pp. 124-145

Chapter VII. Alodpka — Maqabatch — Nikita

Simeis — Aloupka — Prince WoronzofiF — Barren neighbourhood — The gardener — Kehbach — The grounds' — A Platonic eruption — Foreign shrubs — Deficiency of grass-plots — The castle — A rapid postilion —

Fine view — Orianda — Gaspra — Livadia — Yalta — Magaratch

Prince Galitzin — The Princess, and her artistic taste — Massandra —

CONTENTS. • xi

Nikita — Mr. von Hartwiss — Cultivation of the vine and fruit-trees , — Crimean wine — Foreign trees — The cork-tree — Major Frombder — A storm jf. 146-181 '

CHAPTEE VIII.

OBIANDA AND LIVADIA.

The gardener's house — Mr. Eogner — Volcanic eruption — Fine view — Vegetation — Three excursions — The first cliff ■ — ■ The tall juniper — The castle — Plantain-tree — Two blocks of rock — The deer-park — The second and third cliffs — Taurian pine — The arbutus — The fourth diff — Ivy-' — Mount Megabi — A storm — Livadia — Count Pototzky — Beautiful grounds — The castle — View — Plots of turf and groups of shrubs and flowers — Absence of grottoes and arbours — Little Orianda — Juniper with yellowish-red berries — Parasite on the misletoe — Cape Aitodor — Lighthouse — Herbarium of Crimean plants . Pp.182-214

Chapter IX. Jottbnet To Odessa

Departure — Aidanil — Bear Mountain — Ourzouf — Condition of the ground — The eastern and western divisions of the southern coast — Dialects — Aloushta — The Iron Gate — Taushan Basar — The Tent- Mountain (Tohadir-Dagh) — The Salghir^ — -Orchards — Simferopol — Difficulties about a passport — Uniformity of the plain — Expeditions of the Tartars — Perekop — Aleshki — The Saparogas — Kherson — Nicolaev — Professor Knorre— The Admiralty — Odessa . . Pp. 215-249

CHAPTEE X.

Unpleasant incidents on the journey — Business about a passport — Dr. Pseudo-Eosen — General Aglostishef — Comparison between the colonies of Russia and those of England and North America — Odessa seen from the Steppe — Boulevard — Great flight of steps — Plague of 1838 — Statistics — The winds — Chntors — Harbour and roadstead — Odessa a medium of communication with the interior — Her commerce — Departure — Bessarabia — Lemberg — Cracow — Arrival at Jena Pp. 250-270

J^ii CONTENTS.

SUPPLEMENT.

I. CLIMATE AND VEGETATION OF THE SOUTHEEN COAST OF

THE OEIMBA.

Geographical position — Summer— Spring — Autmnn — Winter — Peculiarities in the vegetation — Foreign and indigenous plants Pp. 271-292

II. CLIMATE, SOIL, AND VBOETATION OF SOUTHBKN EUSSIA.

The three zones in the East of Europe — Steppes — Deserts — Meadows — ■Pastures — Pampas — Conditions of the soil — Uniform plains — Substratum of granite — Chalk formation — Steppe limestone — Temperature — Precipitations — Great drought — The four seasons — Snow-drifts — Snow -showers — Tumuli — • Vegetation — Feather-grasses — Pampasplants in general — Steppe-vegetation — Tall herbaceous plants — Burjan — The Steppe-jumper — Low herbaceous plants Pp. 293-323

THE CRBIEA AND ODESSA.

Chapter I. Departure From Taman.— Kertch

General Observations — Hospitality of the Caucasians — The wanderings of Ulysses — The Cossacks and their expeditions on the Black Sea — Their songs and tales — The Cossacks guards of the frontier — Kertch and her commerce — Fanticapseum — The Museum — The skull of a Macrocephalvis — Tmutaracan — A mausoleum of the latest period — Barrows — Prince Herheulidse — Ferro-cyanide.

Prepared to embark for the Crimea, the goal of my wishes, the promised land of the Russians, after having already accomplished two long and perilous journeys in the East, I stood on the shore of the peninsula of Taman, once so dreaded from the robberies committed by its inhabitants. Looking back I beheld the last outliers of the Caucasian chain of mountains : all that I had experienced in my wanderings there passed before my mind, and, in spite of my ardent desire to see the beloved ones from whom I had been separated during an absence from home of a year and a half, I

2 THE CBIMEA AND ODESSA. Chap. I.

still felt it hard to part for ever from a country which had hecome endeared to me on nearer acquaintance. I had almost uniformly experienced kindness from the inhabitants, and had scarcely met with any annoyance, every one contributing his share to make my stay agreeable in this far-distant land. In the very places where most anxiety had been felt on my account I had fared best, in those districts notorious for robberies in the centre of the Caucasian and Pontian mountains ; and the land of the inhospitable Kurd alone failed in bringing pleasant recollections to my mind. When a Caucasian or Ossete received me in his hospitable house with the words, " You are master here, and I and my sons are ready only to do you service," the address was by no means a mere verbal civility, as is too frequently the case with us, but each member of the family was, in fact, thinking whether he could possibly read my wishes from my eyes, in order to execute them without delay. One day, on reaching the first Grusian (Georgian) village, after a long absence amidst the then independent mountainous districts of the Caucasus, one of those beautiful, I might almost say Homeric figures, such as may frequently be met with there, addressed me in these words : " Master, permit me to knock out the teeth of our host ! " I was not a little embarrassed, as I knew well enough that a Caucasian can execute his intentions with as much rapidity as he

Chap. I. HOSI'ITALITY OF THE CAUCASIANS. 3

resolves upon them. He had previously received me hospitably in his own house, and had killed a couple of swine to do me honour ; but here I had only received a pair of fowls and some eggs, which, according to his notions of hospitaUty, was far too small an oflPering for a guest coming from the distant Firengistan (Europe).

Another time I happened to catch sight of a rare tree growing on a precipitous rock, and I was on the point of gathering a few twigs from it, when my guide stepped forward alertly and would not suffer me to expose myself to any kind of danger, saying, " Whenever anything presents itself which can afford you pleasure, command my services, I will readily fulfil all your wishes ; but when I perceive there is danger awaiting you, I shall require your blind obedience ; for it shall never be uttered as a reproach to me that I have not duly cared for the life of my guest" Soon afterwards the entire tree, from which I had only desired to gather a few twigs, was brought to me, and laid at my feet with these words, " Master, take now what your heart desires."

These few traits are sufficient to illustrate the character of the people. My attention had all along been attracted to the historical importance of the country. When civilisation was still cherished and maintained in Asia, the Caucasus was the important

B 2 barrier across which the neighbouring sons of the North but rarely succeeded in penetrating. Art and science now, however, are nurtured by the frigid North, and an improved state of civilisation passes from Europe to all the other parts of the globe. European civihsation at the present day has already taken root beyond the Caucasian mountains ; but almost as many years before the Christian era, as we now reckon after it, Asiatic civilisation had penetrated into the plains on the northern side, while, on the north-western extremity of the Caucasus, Indian civilisation flourished more than three thousand years ago.

A celebrated traveller, Dubois de Montpereux, endeavours to transfer the wanderings of Ulysses to the Black Sea. Should it be objected that the bard of the Odyssey would have assuredly mentioned the Dardanelles and the Bosphorus, had those wanderings even partially taken place north of the Pontus Euxinus, and not to the west of the scene of the Trojan war, in the Mediterranean, we nevertheless cannot deny that the author of the ' Voyage autour du Caucase ' has very successfully attempted to give weight to his opinion. According to the usual acceptation, it was as little the intention of the poet to lead his hero into Italy ; and it is also much questioned whether the bard of the Odyssey was acquainted with the islands and countries about which he speaks, and consequently whether he

Chap. I. WANDERINGS OF ULYSSES. 5

knew how, and where, they were situated. Some of the contradictory geographical errors might be explained if we adopt the hypothesis of the Odyssey being the work of several poets.

Two districts only can actually be determined with precision — the land of the Lotophagi, in which direction the north wind blew, and the land over which the Cimmerians ruled. The first is Egypt, the other the Crimea and all the northern coast of the Black Sea. As is well known, the ancient Cimmerians considered themselves dwelling in a gloomy land, " wholly wrapt in mists and darkness, where Helios never looks down with his illuminating sunbeams." The ancients were unable to transfer Cimmeria to the southern coast of France, and yet, if Sicily is determined to be the island Trinacria, it must be placed there. That the abovementioned island did in fact once bear the name of Trinacria is beyond all doubt, and might also be the only reason why Ulysses is allowed to be driven so far west in the Mediterranean Sea, after quitting the land of the Lotophagi, namely, Egypt.

We know by the Argonautic expedition that the ancients were acquainted with the Black Sea and its coasts, but we are not informed that at the period of the Trojan war, or shortly afterwards, they had any knowledge of Italy and Sicily. In addition to this, Circe, the sister of JEetes, the King of Colchis, lived in .^sea, and Ulysses only required one day to reach the dominions of the Cimmerians. If we imagine .^sea to be near Sicily, as is frequently supposed, then the bard of the eleventh song could not even have possessed the most superficial knowledge of the situation of Cimmeria. Besides this, the sister of yEetes would not have lived many hundred miles distant from her brother, but probably in his immediate neighbourhood.

On the coast of Cimmeria was situated the extremity of the deep gulf of Oceanos, and the entrance into the subterranean kingdom of Hades. The ejections of the mud volcanoes, associated with igneous action at Taman, might have been far more considerable above three thousand years ago than at present, and might then easily have given rise to the explanation of Pyriphlegethon, that river of the infernal regions into which fire flows. Farther, the legend of rocks which struck against each other, on the south of the Black Sea, and at the outlet of the Thracian Bosphorus, is, as it seems, older than the legends of those in Sicily. It is more than probable that the older bards of the Argonautic expedition understood, by their Symplegades, the same rocks which Homer designates by the names of Scylla and Charybdis. It is certain that it was not before a later period that they were transferred to the rocks at the straits of

Chap. I. THE COSSACKS. 7

Sicily. At all events, as I have said, this is an interesting explanation, which has likewise heen borrowed, by Dubois de Montpereux, from a French philologist, and it merits fiirther consideration.

Among the passengers on board the ship which was to convey me from Taman to Kertch, the eastern peninsula of the Crimea, were some Cossacks, handsome young men, who were singing some of their national songs. The Little Russians, among whom the Cossacks are classed, are not alone known throughout Russia by their love of music, but also by their aptitude in singing, and their peculiarly melodious voices. In all the churches of the towns of Russia of any magnitude, the Little Russians form the choir, and are a substitute for the organ. Their voices, however, are not always distinguished by power and tone, but rather by the peculiar pathos which speaks to the heart, and the pious and religious sentiment more or less apparent in all their songs.

I only speak of the genuine Cossack, who, if not directly descended from those on the Don, or on the Dnjepr,' yet derives his origin from the Ukraine, an ancient Cossack possession. The Cossa;cks of former

* The name of this well-known river is pronounced aa it is here written, and not Dnieper, as is usually inserted in geographical works.

days and of the present are essentially different. Those of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries played an important part in the eastern portion of our quarter of the globe. Men thirsting after brave deeds on the Don and the Dnjepr united for common action. Like the Varangians and the Vikings of the North, they appeared in their light barks, and even disturbed the proud ruler of Stambul in the immediate neighbourhood of his capital. Trebisond and Sinope were more than once destroyed by their predatory expeditions. Cossacks threatened the holy Serai,» the all-powerfiil Padishah, and plundered Constantinople. The proud rulers of the East and of the West, as the Sultans call themselves, came victorious out of their combats, and defied all Christian nations — and yet trembled before a handful of Christian adventurers. Those vfho threatened every moment to pour down upon Germany, who tvdee advanced as far as Vienna, were unable to check the depredations of the Cossacks in their own land. After one of those daring incursions which even threatened Sultan Murad in his own palace, he is said to have exclaimed, " All Christendom trembles before me, and yet a few Cossacks

" The Turks write Serai, not Seraglio, and with a sharp s ; Seraglio ig quite false, although introduced by the French. In the same manner it is Trebisond, not Trebizond; Erserum, not Erzeroum.

Chap. I. EXPEDITIONS OF THE COSSACKS. 9

deprive me of my rest." The invasion of the Tm-kish territory continued, even when the Crimea and all the northern coast of the Black Sea (consequently the mouth of the Dnjepr) acknowledged the Sultan as their master, and after every measure had been taken to keep back the Cossacks at the above-mentioned river, which, because they lived above its rapids, received the name of Saparogas. It was in vain that warvessels pursued the flat-bottomed boats of the Cossacks to the entrance of the small rivers, or to the marshy shores, of the North. Even the two fortresses, Kinburn and Otshakoff (Oczakow), which were erected at the mouth of the Dnjepr, and intended to guard the egress and ingress, were as incapable of checking the incursions of the Cossacks, as the great chain drawn in a slanting direction still farther up across the river.

The watchmen of the chain heard the approach of their enemies during the darkness of night, and the cannons pointed to the threatened spot sounded from either side. It was not, however, the caiques, the barks of the Cossacks, which had moved the chain, but great stems of trees, sent out in advance by the bold adventurers, and which received the whole charge of the cannon. Now for the first time the Cossacks approached gradually, and with caution, and passed over the dangerous spot. In the daytime they concealed themselves among the reeds of the marshy

B 3

10 THE CRIMEA AND ODESSA. Chap. 1.

shores, or covered their boats with them, in order to evade the view of their enemies.

Still more difficult was the return, which could only be accomplished up the Dnjepr with the greatest danger, on account of the watchfulness of the Turks. To avoid them the Cossacks usually passed through the straits of Kertch into the Sea of Azov, and thence up the Don to the entrance of the Donetz. How far they went up this tributary river depended on the height of the water. As soon as navigation became impossible, the Cossacks carried their light barks upon their shoulders, often merely consisting of willows or poplars hollowed out, as far as the Samar, a tributary of the Dnjepr ; and thus they frequently did not reach their homes till after three, four, and even six months' absence.

I sat down beside the singers and made them relate to me the deeds of their ancestors. The Cossack is justly proud of his history, with which we, alas ! are too little acquainted. It would be well worth while if some one were to collect the tales as they exist in the mouth of the people, for they would assuredly supply many a gap in history. During the long winter evenings the father of the household loves to relate all his own adventures, as well as those which have been recounted to him in his youth ; thus the history of the Cossacks is bequeathed from father to son. The Cossack who

Chap. I. COSSACK FRONTIER GUARDS. 11

related it to me became gradually more animated as he proceeded, and his tale was told as if he had himself experienced it all. When he spoke of the silent nocturnal expedition, his voice was lowered, as if the watchman of the chain could hear it. He and his companions mimicked the splashing of the oars on the high seas, and his voice became louder when a storm seized the light bark and hurled it towards the very spot where shortly before they had but just escaped the Turkish spies. He seemed anxiously to snatch at the reeds which each caique bore along with it, that he might give it the appearance of a forest of reeds. But when he came to the description of the attack, all the Cossacks sprang up with shrieks, as if they themselves would once more attack the place which was alluded to in the song.

The Cossacks are now the frontier guards of the immense Russian empire. They extend in a long stripe from the Polish-German frontier, and to the north of three great empires — Turkey, Persia, and China — as far as the great silent ocean ; they protect their great fatherland in the south from the incursions of robber hordes, but in the west they exclude the products of European civilisation. The descendants of the earlier Cossacks were not, however, sufficiently strong to guard such an extent of frontier, and therefore in the course of time the inhabitants of other districts of Russia, especially Little Russia, have been employed in that service. But besides these, even some non-Christian tribes, of warlike disposition — for example, the Bashkirs, the Kirghis, and Calmucks — were made Cossacks, and now not only perform the same functions as the others, but are likewise subject to the same regulations.

I regretted that I was unable to understand all that was said, on account of my imperfect knowledge of the Russian language; but fortunately the master of the packet-boat was a German, and willingly supplied what had escaped me. Thus the time passed rapidly away. Gradually the outline of the opposite coast became more distinct, and we soon found ourselves in the crescent-shaped bay of the harbour of Kertch. As the wind, however, was directly against us, it was only after tacking about for a considerable time that we ourselves succeeded in running into the harbour. The passage across lasted four hours.

It was the first time after a long period of privation that I once more found an inn arranged according to the German fashion. A German waiter relieved me of my cloak on entering, and led me into a neatly furnished room. He only who has been wandering for a long time among people where there are no inns, and who has been exposed to the voluntary or involuntary hospitality of those who have often scarcely enough

Chap. I. KERTCH. 13

to meet their own wants, can fully appreciate the benefit of the inns of one's own country. For months together I often knew not where I should lay my head at night ; for weeks together I frequently saw no other food but sour milk on a polenta of millet, with neither butter nor salt.

Kertch is a modem town, but a mixture of the Italian and Russian. Houses with flat roofs remind us of the former ; wide long streets, partially unpaved, of the latter. On the whole, the town presents a more pleasing aspect than most Little Russian towns afibrd. It is said that it now contains 10,000 inhabitants, a number which is sm-e to increase with time. But it does not promise to be a town of much importance until the provinces about the Don enjoy a higher civilisation. Thus Kertch is even now the medium of communication between those provinces and the south, but the products of the Don lands are still so insignificant that the export is of no importance. The Don Cossacks, who occupy the most important lower portion of the territory of the Don, only cultivate as much corn as they require for their own maintenance. They live, besides, simply ; and the common people at least have few or no wants. The material for their clothing is chiefly made by themselves, or they obtain it from Russian factories.

Thus the chief traflSc is confined to the products of the immediate neighbourhood, fish and salt, both of which are exchanged in places north of the Sea of Azov for corn. There is a good deal of traffic, especially with Taganrog, a town which above twenty years ago promised to become of some consequence, but, since Kertch has risen, has lost its importance. The salt is obtained from small lakes which occur to the south of Kertch, the largest of which bear the names of Opuk and Tshokrek. Much fish is dried and salted like herrings. Several thousand tons of these are annually exported to the south of Russia. Caviar is also prepared, but, as the sturgeon does not here attain the size of those at the mouths of the Volga and Kour- Araxes, the grains of the caviar are smaller, but by no means inferior in flavour to those from Astracan.

Where Kertch now stands, several hundred years before the Christian era flourished Panticapseum, the royal metropolis of the Bosporanic sovereigns. The importance of this Grecian colony has been only recognised of late, and the opinion will gain ground the more we turn our attention to the remains still extant, a multitude of proofs from the earliest times having been recently discovered. Unfortunately the largest portion of the most valuable testimonies of that ancient period, chiefly found within the tombs, have been taken to St. Petersburg, and there placed in the Hermitage. In my opinion a complete collection, on the

Chap. I. PANTICAPiEUM. 15

very spot and position, would be far more appropriate. I have twice visited the collection at St. Petersburg, and each time was struck with its magnitude and richness. It is not my object to give an exact description of what has been already found, or to give the history of the Bosporanic kingdom ; I will only state in a few words what I saw here. My previous acquaintance with Mr. von Blaremberg, the Director of the Archaeological Museum at Kertch, was a very advantageous circumstance, for in the kindest manner he himself introduced me to all that was worth seeing. He communicated to me the plan which he had laid down for the environs of Kertch, in accordance with the Strabonic description of ancient Panticapseum, and which interested me extremely, on account of the great unanimity between the ancient statements and the present state of the ground.

Kertch is situated close to the harbour, while the Panticapaeum of Strabo was built upon mounds. The Acropolis was placed in front, almost in the centre, while the hill on which it stood extended to the south of the present town, and was connected with a ridge of inconsiderable elevation. We mounted the first height by a splendid stone staircase, on which the Museum is situated for the antiquarian objects of smaller value, but which are difficult to transport. It has a very good efi'ect in the distance, with its columns, but unfortunately proper attention is not paid to the outside of the huilding, which is the more to be desired as, on account of its position, it is much exposed to the weather. Arrived at the summit, there is a most glorious prospect of the immediate neighbourhood. By chance, also, about fifty vessels, and, among others, one Prussian, had cast anchor, and gave animation to the picture. Towards the south, and looking inland, the heights themselves excluded all distant view, but northwards stretched an interminable gray steppe, hardly broken by ancient sepulchral mounds (tumuli, kurgan).

A multitude of broken statues and mutilated sculptures lay in front of the building ; the best were placed in the spacious hall within. In spite of being injured, one head of Apollo seemed to possess peculiar beauty ; a reddish glow was still perceptible on the cheeks ; in other parts the marble had a most dazzling whiteness, and was extremely fine-grained. A large coffin interested me still more, also composed of marble, which probably had at one time served as an enclosure to another of wood. Unfortunately it had been so mutilated by the Turks, the former masters of this district, that but little of the sculpture could be distinctly recognised. On the cover were two gigantic figures, whose heads had however been broken ofi^.

Near it stood a coffin of cedar-wood, with most beautiful carving, forcibly reminding me of the German

Chap. I. THE KEETCH MUSEUM. 17

chests of the middle ages. I afterwards obtained some ornaments from a Jew here, which I presented to the Archaeological Museum in Berlin, as well as some very ancient sandals. The material of some of the vases, which were more or less Etruscan in form, resembled our porcelain. A particular kind of glass vessel also interested me, remarkable for its lightness.

But what drew my attention, above all other things, was a skull, in tolerable preservation, of a boy of about ten or twelve years old. All the bones were pecuUarly thin, such as we scarcely see in a child of one or two years. But what was most remarkable was the length of the frontal bones, which were nearly as long as the whole of the rest of the face. This circumstance reminded me somewhat of the Macrocephali of Herodotus. In the present instance, however, the skull probably belonged to a sick child ; but even then it was certainly strange that it did not at the same time expand in breadth.

Among the number of inscriptions which were here set up, and most of which, if I am not mistaken, have been published in the Corpus Inscriptionum of Bockh, there were also some which had been discovered at Taman, and which indicated with precision that the capital of the Russian grand principality of Tmutaracan of the tenth and eleventh centuries was situated in the peninsula of Taman. Hitherto the site was unknown, and Tmutaracan has even been identified with Astracan. This monument was the only one inscribed in the ancient Russian alphabet, as all the others had Greek inscriptions. This Russian principality in the extreme south was of significance, since it testifies how far the influence of Russia must have extended, when its power did not only thrive, but even flourished, at that distance. One of the Grand Dukes conquered the Kasoghes (Cossacks, i. e. Tsherkassi) and the Isses (the Osses or Ossetes) in a decided action, and subdued these two tribes, which were still partially refractory.