A digest of the laws, customs, manners, and institutions of the ancient and modern nations

Front matter

Cornell University Library D 21.D51

Digest of the laws, customs, manners, an

3 1924 028 324 071

Preface

The great body of this volume is the work of Prof. Thomas Dew, late President of the College of William and Mary. It was prepared originally in the shape of Lectui-es, in the Historical Department, over which he presided, and, during his lifetime, was printed for the use of his class, but never published. Its publication was prevented by his death.

The work is, what its title declares, a Digest of History, Ancient and Modern. It makes no pretensions to originality ; but, as an Historical Manual, it is believed to possess decided advantages over all those compendiums of history now in use in our schools and colleges. Indeed, it was the imperfection of these compilations, and the necessity which the author felt for some proper text-book to be placed in the hands of the student, as an accompaniment to his historical lectures, that led to the preparation of this work. On examination, it will be found that more than ordinary labor has been expended upon it ; and that the author has proceeded upon higher principles, and has had higher aims in view than compilers ordinarily propose to themselves. Instead of being, like most historical compendiums, a mere catalogue of events, chronologically arranged, it is a careful, laborious, and instructive digest of the laws, customs, manners, institutions, and civilization of the ancient and modern nations. The department of modern history particularly, in which such works are generally most deficient, has been pre-

IV PREFACE.

pared with unusual care and industry. In proof of this, reference is made to the chapters on the "Reformation, the Papat Power, the English Constitution, and the French Revolution.

For a digest of history, prepared on these principles, it is believed that a demand exists, particularly in our schools and colleges, and it is to meet this demand that this volume is now presented to the public. It is believed that the schoolmaster will find in it an excellent substitute for the histories now in use, the historical lecture^ a desirable text-book to be placed in the hands of the student as an accompaniment to his lectures, and the general reader a useful manual.

TABLE OP CONTENTS.

ANCIENT HISTORY.

Chapter I. Page

II. COMMENTABT ON ANTEDILTrVIAN HiSTOEY 2

CHAPTER n.

POST-DILUVIAN HISTOKY 9

CHAPTER m.

MONUMENTAL HISTOEY 15

CBLAPTER IV.

HISTOEY OF EGYPT IT

CHAPTER V.

ASIA.

Section I. — Geitoeai, description or Asia , 24

n.— Babylon 27

III.— Ph<enioia 82

VI CONTENTS.

PAGE

CHAPTER VI.

EUKOPE 36

CHAPTER Vn.

GEEECE.

Section I. — To Dowbtall of Tkot <58

m. — ^Eeligion of the Greeks 51

IV. — Greece after the Trojan War 6"

V. — ^Measurement of Time. Newton's Chronologt 85

VI.— Persia 91

VII. — War between Greece and Persia, and its oonse<jtjences 98

VIII. — MiaoELLANEOirs History 102

1. ScntPTCRE AND Padstino 102

2. Literature, Philosopht, Hbtort, Drama, Eloquence 115

8. History 125

4. Drama 126

5. Ancient Eloquence 132

6. Women, Manners, Meals, &o 160

IX. — External and Internal Condition of Athenian Democracy

after Persian War 172

X.— Causes of the Decline, and Downfall of the Grecian Ee-

FUBLICS 190

21. — General Estimate of Grecian Character 202

CHAPTER Vm.

ROME.

Section I. — The Original Italian Eaoes 211

II. — Origin of Eome 215

m. — The Social System of Eome 216

IV. — The Condition of Eome During the Monarchy 220

V. — From the Eall of the Monarchy to the Wars with Carthage. . 229 VI. — From Commencement of War with Carthage to Seditions of

THE Graoobi 241

VII. — From Seditions of the Gracchi to Fall of the Commonwealth. 257

VIII. — From Death of Augustus Cesar to Death of Commodus 283

IX.' — From the Death of Commodus to Diocletian 298

X. — From Diocletian to Overthrow of Western Empire 307

Contents

MODERN HISTORY.

CHAPTER I.

PASS

Chapter III. Monumental History

1. What is the principal source from which the history of the earliest periods of Egypt, and of most of the great Asiatic nations, is derived? Monuments.

2. Objects of raising monuments ? Raised by kings and nations through a principle of mere vanity, or to commemorate great events, or to serve useful purposes. Hence, monuments of all descriptions from a pile of stones, to the temple, pyramid, canal, &c. e. g. Pillar of Jacob at Hebron — heap of stones, mark of reconciliation with Laban. (P. 1. 75.)

3. How are monuments historical ? First, they indicate state of the arts and civilization. (H. Af v, 2. 8.) e. g. Pantheon, sewers, wall of China, Apollo Belvidere, pyramid, &c. Second, excites inquiry — a history, a tradition or mythus attached to them, e. g. Botetourt, old magazine here — column of Trajan, of Vendome, temple of Fortuna, Mulubris origin of tale of Coriolanus, house of Loretto, Coliseum, &c. When covered with inscriptions much more instructive, e. g. Arundelian and Capitoline marbles, (p. L. 80.) obelisks of Egypt, &c.

4. Character of a monumental history f 1 st, Fragmentary. 2d, Too many things ascribed to founders, e. g. Tarquinius Priscus, builder of pyramids, cfec. 3d, Not chronological unless full of dates. 4th, Marvellous, especially if monuments are large and extraordinary — tales of superstition or vanity link with them.

5. May not names have historic importance ? Yes. e. g. All the names of persons and places in Old Testament of historic importance — name of this state, name of this place, college, Pittsburg, Le Champ du

-^ Mensonge, when Gregory treated with Louis feeble.

6. Historic importance of national customs and ceremonies ? e. g. Paschal supper among Jews. Lord's supper among Christians, annual ship sent by Athenians to Delos, the ceremony of wedding Adriatic sea at Venice, celebration of 22d February and 4th July in United States, Anaximander's petition to magistrates of Lampsaoum that boys might play on anniversary of his death. (P. L. 77.) All have a tendency to perpetuate history of events.

7. Historical importance of coins and medals ? Portable monuments — generally have date — some king or emblem — ^you learn state of arts. e. g. Hercules Farnese, Venus de Medicis, Apollo, and Marcus Aurelius, all have been found on coins. (85.) You find out too customs in dress, &c., and often character of princes, e. g. Nero has his fiddle, Commodus lion skin. Medals have been struck expressly to commemorate events, e. g. All events of reign of Louis XIV. on medals — ^whole history of Balbeo and Palmyra gathered from medals. (82.)

8. Why are the Egyptian monuments so interesting! Because they are numerous, large, and often covered with hieroglyphics, which enable us to guess at their history.

"ff 9. How many kinds of hieroglyphics 1 Three. Figurative, symbolic or ideographic, and phonetic.

10. Figurative'? 1st, Imitates object completely, e. g. Sun, moon &c. 2d, Abridged imitation, e. g. Ground plot of a house for the house. 3d, Imitation conventional, e. g. Firmament by section of blue ceiling with or without stars.

1 1 . Symbolical or ideographic ? Must go to rhetoric for the idea

expression of abstract ideas by physical objects, e. g. By synecdoche— iwo arms lifted up was an offering— -perinming pan and grains of incense adoration. By metonomy— crescent of moon for month — writing materials for writing. By metaphor— hee for an obedient people. Four legs of lion for strength ; asp for power of life or death. (Greppo, 42.) The symbolical were the only trtie hieroglyphics according to ancients.

12. Phonetic? Hieroglyphics for letters corresponding to our alphabet.

13. In what did great discovery of Young and ChampoUion consist? In proving the existence of this class, and furnishing key by which it might be read.

1 4. In what manner were they led to this discovery ? Upon general principles, they supposed that the Egyptians must have had an alphabet. Fact first proved by trilingual monument dug up by the French troops at Rosetta, in Egyj^t, containing a decree in honor of Ptolemy Epiphanes, in Greek on one side, in hieroglyphics on the other, and enchorial on the third. Supposed the same decree on each side, but in different languages — G-reek translated the other two. Supposed further, that the hieroglyphics encompassed in an elliptical bas-relief, called cartouche, must be the name of the king, Ptolmes. In same manner on another monument the name of Cleopatra was deciphered. The correspondence of five letters common to the two names proved the truth of the conjecture. (G. 15, 21 and 196.) In this way the names of numerous kings were quickly deciphered, and great light was shed over the Egyptian history.

15. Are these different kinds of hieroglyphics found entirely distinct, or are they all seen on same monument? The latter. The Phonetic constituted about two-thirds of all found on the monuments.

16. What the principle on which the Egyptians chose signs for their letters 1 That hieroglyphic of any object might be used to signify initial letter in the name of the object ; e. g. picture of eagle stood for A, because ahour is Egyptian for eagle ; a mouth stood for R, because ro is Egyptian for mouth.

17. How, on this principle, could the signs be prevervted from indefinite increase 1 Merely by arbitrary limitation. No letter has more than eight or ten signs for it. But all that were selected were chosen on the principle stated.

Chapter IV. Egypt

1. Wliy is the history of Egypt so interesting! Because it lays claim to antiquity surpassing that of any nation we know of — because it has been rendered famous by its connection with the Israelites — because it is the land of grand and interesting monuments — the mother of the ancient civilization, &c., &e.

2. Who su/pposed to be the founder ? Ham, son of Noah, and was anciently, called Misraim, after son of Ham.

3. Situation and boundaries ? In Africa, stretching along the Nile

— about 600 miles in length — varying in breadth from 30 to 300 ; bounded on south by kingdom of Sennaar and cataracts of the Nile : north by Mediterranean sea ; east by Red sea ; on west by Marmorica. Egypt almost as small as England. ,

4. Divisions of Egypt ? Three — ^upper, middle, and lower. Thebais from city Thebes, Heptanomis, or seven nomas, and the Deltas. Of these parts, the upper first civilized, then middle, &c.

5. Character of government? Three estates — ^king, priests, and soldiers. The priests controlled the king to great extent, e. g. Diodorus says early in morning king attended to state affairs — then sacrifices and prayers — then priest rehearsed his praises and reminded him of his duties, and read to him from lives of the great kings. Amusements, meats, drinks, &c. were all prescribed. [H. A. v. 2, 155.]

6. How was Egypt divided for political purposes ? Into nomes.

7. Origin of nomes ? Most probably a division first made for religious purposes. Each one had its own temple, and was under its own governor, and worshipped often gods of its own, not only distinct from, but frequently hostile to those of its neighbors.

8. Was the government of Egypt always a consolidated despotism i* Egypt at first seems to have been divided into tribes, and afterwards into nomes — each having government of its own. This government was probably consolidated by the expulsion of the Hyksos or Shepherd kings, and partly by the policy of Joseph during the years of famine — when the king became a sort of feudal proprietor of all the lands. But the priests never lost their power.

9. Would not Egypt have been greater with a more consolidated government ? Great consolidated empires unfavorable to individual energy and greatness ; they are without a history, e. g. history of India or Hindostan in the east most interesting, because government less consolidated than that of China, and the other great eastern despotisms.

1 0. Division of lands in Egypt ? Principal portion belonged to the three ruling castes — kings, priests, and soldiers.

1 1 . What the law in regard to trades, occupations, Sfc. ? All hereditary ; son followed business of father. These castes originated in all probability from tribes, each one preserving its peculiar occupations, customs, &c.

12. What degree of consanguinity allowed of in marriage ? Even brothers and sisters. Causes — 1st, Isis and Osiris married ■ 2d Brothers and sisters kept separate from each other.

13. Religion? Divided into two branches — Esoteric and Exoteric — mystical and the popular. Former, religion of the priests, npt known to the people.

1 4. Egyptian mythology ? Mind and matter co-eternal — flatter originally chaos, by action of former generated all forms. This supreme mind, called Demiurges or Ammon. Theory of Orpheus that the world was hatched from an immense egg by fiery nature of spirit, taken from this. Ammon, under a modification, represented the male spirit of the nniyerse, called Nef or Nour — the good genius — vivifying principle, vis vivica, described so well by Virgil :

Female principle, goddess Neith, another emanation from Demiurges, presided over moral attributes — wisdom, philosophy, and military tactics attributed to her — prototype of Minerva, both created from supreme god. Her chief temple at Sais. Inscription on her temple, " I am all that haa been, all that is, and all that will be." Priests of Sais regarded her as mens eterna ac opifex. In Vedas, Vishnou is spoken of in similar strain, " All which has been, all which is, and all which will be, are in Vishnou." Like God in scripture, " Which was, and is, and is to come.'' " The same yesterday, to-day, and forever,'' &c. The god Phtha — architect of the world — the Hephaistos of Greeks, and Vulcan of Latins. Besides these, the Sun and Moon were worshipped — Sun was made son of Phtha^ and succeeded to him on throne of Egypt ; hence titles of Pharaohs, '' offspring of the Sun — son of the Sun," &c. [Grep. 230.] Sate, daughter of Sun, answers to Hera of Greeks, and Juno of Latins — protectress of Egyptian monarchs, especially of the 18th dynasty. Sme, goddess of justice, answers to Themis. Gods of second rank — Osiris and Isis — Sol inferus and Luna infer a — like Diana and Hecate among Latins. Osiris answers to Pluto., Isis to Proserpine and Ceres both. [233 ] Amenti of Egypt is Hades of Greeks, and Tartarus of Latins — governed by Osiris as chief, with many inferior divinities. Whole world divided into three zones. 1st, .EartA, or zone of trial; 2d., zone of air, agitated by winds and storms, zone of temporal punishment ; 3d, above these two, zone of rest ; these three subdivided into thirty-two. God Pooh presided over second zone, where bad spirits were tormented, till they came either to earth, to animate a new body (according to doctrine of transmigration of souls), or passed to third zone, into pure ether of rest.

15. Origin of Grecian notions about Acheron, Charon, Cerberus, SfC. ? For city of Memphis is common place of burial beyond the lake Acherjsia or Acharejish, meaning last state or condition of man. On border of this lake sat a tribunal of forty-two judges, who decided whether deceased should be buried beyond the lake ; virtuous entitled iO

ANCIENT HISTOEY.

to burial, vicious thrown into a large ditch called Tartar^ meaning lamentation. The good carried over in a boat, for which a stated sum was paid. Cemetery was large plain, surrounded by trees intersected by canals, called elisant or elisicens, meaning rest. Hence lake Acheron, Tartarus, Charon, and the elysian fields' oi the Grreeks. Again, after interment, three cries or farewells were uttered by the attendants. On tomb, horse of the Nile was engraved, or placed on the mummy. Greeks mistook this foi; a dog, and connecting it with three farewell shouts, represented a triple-headed dog called Cerberus, from Egyptian ceriber, meaning cry of the tomb. (235.)

16. Second branch of Egyptian religion 1 Animal worship. Cats, rats, wolf, lion, crocodile, ichneumon, ox, goat, &c., all worshipped, e. g. bull at Memphis and Heliopolis — goat at Mendes, lion at Leantopolis, &o. Animals worshipped kept in consecrated inclosures, attended by higher classes, and buried i^ith royal pomp. e. g. Apis at Memphis, whose burial cost 50 talents, or £13,000. Fire terrific, says Herodotus, because of the danger to cats, and not to children. Cry, save the cats. Roman ambassador who killed a cat.

17. Puzzle of Hume? What kept these cats from multiplying to an alarming extent, with such kind treatment? Thinks the kittens were not gods, and therefore destroyed before deified.

1 8. Causes for this worship ? 1st, Grods pressed in battle had taken refuge in these animals, hence veneration for them 2d, They had been painted on standards, and success deified them. 3d, Because of great use, e. g. sheep, cow, goat, &c. Wc acquire love for animals in certain situations, e. g. Tartar for his horse, and the Arab for his camel. 4th, These animals had properties sometimes emblematical of divinity ; e.g. keen sight of the hawk, of omniscience. 5th, Transmigration of souls made them reverence animals that might have souls of men in them. 6th, Hieroglyphics — by using figures of animals to denote certain properties might produce this worship.

19. Learning of Egyptians ? Surpassed rest of the world in early times, e. g. Moses was said to possess the wisdom of Egyptians and Solomon hyperbolically spoken of as possessing more than the boasted wisdom of Egypt. Geometry was first studied in this country. Annual

inundation produced annual processioning. Derivation of the term ge

terra, and metron, mensura. Anecdote of Thales, and the discovery of the mode of inscribing right angled triangle in a circle — of Pythagoras aCnd the 47th Euclid; former sacrificed an ox, the latter one hundred • the latter doubted, because Pythagoras believed in transmigration of aoulfl. In medicine, profession divided physician for each great division af human system. Theory about the duration of human life astrology deeply studied. The horoscope of each individual was cast at birth, and this superstition threw great power into hands of priests. (H. A. 157.)

20. Wh'i/ was Egypt never very warlike ? Because almost cut off from world by sea and desert, she was left to her own resources for aggrandizement. Sesostris was her most warlike monarch. Hieroglyphics have proved his existence and mighty power.

21. What did her wealth and civilization depend on ? Upon the development of her internal resources.

22. Physical character of Egypt 1 Soil finest in world — the gift of the Nile. Nile commences rising about summer solstice, and continues till about autumnal equinox ; caused by periodical rains in the mountains of Ethiopia ; a rich slime is deposited, which renews every year the powers of the soil. Water is spread over the country by canals, and if the inundation does not reach a certain height, a famine or scarcity is sure to ensue : for in Egypt it rarely rains, hence perfect preservation of monuments and paintings.

23. Different appearances of Egypt in, July, August, Sfc, when under water, and in January, February, Sfc, when covered with vegetation? (H. A. 61.)

24. How is Egypt protected against the great desert on the west? By the Libyan chain of mountains, a stony ridge covered with sand. On the west it sinks down into the great desert ; on the east into the fertile valley of the Nile ;s guards Egypt against invasions of sands — you have here the region of fertility bordering on the waste. Again, in valley you have the habitations of the living ; at foot of Libyan chain, and in the sides of mountains, you have countless graves and sepulchres — you have empire of life bordering on empire of death. This circumstance powerfully influenced the character of the nation. (H. 65.)

25. Character of the country on tlie eastern side of the Nile from the vaJley to the AraMan Gulf? Totally different from western side — stony mountainous tract — unfit for agriculture — good for pasturage — possesses marble of every variety of color, granite, porphyry, &c. From this district came the materials for all the splendid monuments of Egypt. (H. 66.)

26. Monuments of Egypt ? Valley of Nile, in whole course through Upper and Middle Egypt, was covered with succession of cities and monuments ; those of Upper Egypt (Thebais) most magnificent. Pyramids belong to Middle Egypt. As you ascend the Nile, Tentyris, now Dendera, on west side, is first city in Upper Egypt to strike beholder with its gigantic and massive architecture, so different from any thing on globe. Here is the temple with the famous Zodiac. Twenty miles higher up, come to great city of Ammon — mighty Thebes — ^whole width

22 AKCIENT HISTORY.

of valley, nine miles from east to west, both sides of stream, is covered with the most magnificent ruins ; and where the habitations for the living cease, commence those of the dead, extending into western mountains, ^mples towering like mountains, surrounded by scattered colossi, sphinxes, and obelisks. The great temple of Jupiter Ammon yet exists at Carnac — stately palaces of Pharaohs stand at Luxor and Medinet Abou ; colossus of Memnon, wonder of the ancient world ;* other temples and colossi, and royal sepulchres, with paintings fresh as yesterday, all remain. Ascending the Nile, link after link of this chain of monuments follows in rapid succession. Just beyond the bounds of Thebes, ruins of Hermanthis present themselves — then beautiful temple of -Esneh, ancient Latopolis — then Edfu, the ancient Apollinopolis Magna, with the most magnificent temple, except that of Thebes ; then come monuments of Eliethyca, Silsilis, and Ombos. Twenty -five miles farther we come to limits of ancient Egypt, and here are the most splendid monuments. At Philce they show the tomb of Osiris — on the isle of Elephantis, Greeks, Eomans, and Arabs, erected monuments here which are now scattered in the dust ; but those of old Egypt, thousand years older than the oldest, defy destruction ! (70.) No wonder that travellers have supposed sometimes that a race of giants must have built these great monuments. The lake Moeris, 400 miles in circumference, was to great extent artificial, intended to receive waters of the Nile for the dry season. Near this was the Labyrinth, of which Herodotus said, " all the buildings of the Greeks together could not have cost so much." This Labyrinth had 1 2 palaces, 3,000 chambers, and ways and passages innumerable ! On these monuments, especially of Upper Egypt, we see much that became the model to the Israelite. The tabernacle, the temple, the sacred utensils of the Jews, had all their prototypes in this monumental land. The ark of the covenant, the clterubim with their extended wings, the holy candlesticks, the show bread, and many parts of the Jewish sacrifices, all appear in the engravings of Thebes. Ar. chitecture of Jews was that of Egyptians on a small scale ; they had more wood, because Egypt had no Lebanon with cedars. (H. A. 297.) (77.) But most enduring monuments are Pyramids, found only in Middle Egypt, generally built on square or triangular bases, well fitted to resist effects of time and flood. Largest is that of Cheops, height 481 feet (height of St. Paul's steeple), square base, each side 693 feet • surface covered 480,259 square feet, or about 1 1 acres ! Casts no shade at mid-day.

* It was 29 feet to knee from bottom of the foot ; to the instep 4 feet, and thenee to ankle 2 feet 6 inches ; the foot 5 feet broad, and the leg 4 feet deep.

This Pyramid has been variously estimated, because of the collection of sand about the base, e. g.

Feet. Feet

Herodotus, height 800 - length of side 800

Strabo, - do. 625 - do. do. 600

Pliny, - do. - do. do. 708

French Savans, do. 440 470 (Eng.) do. do. 704

It was covered over with upwards of 200 steps of marble, receding until you arrived at top, about 13 feet square. These pyramids have all one side due north, and others of course fronting cardinal points. Some distance up on north side, there is a small opening, often concealed by marble fitting it, which leads down by a slope, of little more than 26 degrees with the horizon, to a great distance. In the interior always a well at great depth — a small chamber with sarcophagus sometimes containing bones belonging to bovine species, probably of sacred bulls. — Great Sphinx, near Memphis, now buried in sand, another prodigy : head and breast, woman, body and tail, lion, in cumbent posture, huge paws stretched 50 feet before the body, length of body 130 feet, 63 feet high, breast 33 feet wide! [R. E. 116.] The object of these sphinxes is conjectured to be a representation of Divinity, which must combine the male and female nature, for purposes of creation. (122.)

27. Object of the Pyramids ? Some say for granaries. Aristotle says they were the works of tyrants — Pliny thinks built for ostentation, and to divert public mind ; all refer them to shepherd kings. True cause, for purposes of religion, for burial, and perhaps for astronomical purposes. The sloping way descending at angle of 26 just suits for observation on north star when it passes the meridian below the pole. Their belief that the soul would again unite with the body after 3000 years, made them wish to preserve body ; hence art of embalming, and great care in burying ; hence dread of the sea ; hence splendid sepulchral monuments.

28. Origin of Egyptian style of Architecture ? 1 st. Climate hot — sun vertical — stone and marble plenty — ^people superstitious — whence porticoes, colonnades, and temples of most massive character, totally different from any graceful architecture of Persepolis, where there was no necessity to guard against excessive heat. 2d, Architecture of Troglodytes in a measure suggested this — introduced from Ethiopia. [H. A. 280.] Describes cave of Egypt.

29. Character of sculpture and painting 1 First, grand without grace — latter remarkable for freshness of colors after thousands of years.

30. What race probably inhabited Egypt when centre of the icorld's civilization ? Herodotus says a black race with woolly hair. (H. A. 85.)

31. Are we to conclude they were negroes 1 No, his expression may be interpreted dark brown with curly hair. Ammianus Marcellinus says, plerique subfusculi sunt et atrati — color of present Copts. ' 32. May not this question be decided by monuments ? Yes, e. g. historical bas-reliefs on temple of Thebes. Figure of king several times — always same — nothing of negro — more than 100 attendants, nothing still — seem to have rather Grecian profile. Representations on obelisks, heads of sphinxes, and deities, have nothing of the negro. Painting in sepulchres, fresh as yesterday, prove that the ruling caste was not negro, e. g. in sepulchres at Eluthias, men are red, women yellow, hair of both black and curled, not woolly ! Again, in royal sepulchre at Thebes, explored by Belzoni, there are decapitated persons, all Negroes ; those destroying them, red. In this sepulchre we have white, red, and black, most accurately drawn. Two contracts exist, one at Paris, fac-simile of the other at Berlin — ^in latter Parmenthes, seller, called of darkish brown color, and buyer, honey colored or yellowish ; same color of buyer, Osarreres, in Parisian. Nose and face described, but no negro features.

33. Conclusion'! That different races in Egypt, and that one approaching to white was the ruling race, while negroes were always subjects and slaves.

Chapter V. Asia

SECTION I.

1. General description of Asia? It stretches from the Frozen Ocean through the temperate zone almost to the equator. Europe stops in Mediterranean — Asia four times as large as Europe — its

productions more varied and superior tq those of Europe land

more fertile — more incommoded by deserts than Europe, e. g. Arabia and Gobi ; not so much as Africa.

2. Describe the two mountain ranges which form the grand divisions of Asia ? They are the Atltaic and the Tauric. 1 st From west to east, beginning just above the Caspian sea — sends off branch to north under name of Ural mountains, stretches to the Arctic

ASIA. 23

Ocean. The main chain, with mean elevation of 6 or 7000 feet, crosses southern Siberia — widening as it goes east, fills the territory of the Tungusians, and the shores of Siberia, losing itself on the shores of the Pacific. 2d, Tauric range rises in Asia Minor, passes through Armenia, thence through tho countries south of the Caspian, through Media and districts of Hyrcania, Parthia and Bactriana, till it reaches east of Great Bucharia, or ancient Sogdiana ; here it divides into two, one going south-easterly, the other north-easterly, forming an inclosure of great sea of sand, called by Herodotus Sandy Desert (modern Gobi ); northern branch unites with Altaic range on confines of Siberia — southern passes north of Hindostan through Great and Little Thibet, losing itself in central China near Pacific. This, the branch called Himalaya, rising to enormous height of 25,000 feet ; higher than Chimborazo of the Cordilleras of South America.

3. Rivers ? They flow from these two chains of mountains ; e. g. Irtish, Yenesei and Lena, three of largest rivers in old world, rise in Altaic range, and empty their waters in Arctic ocean, through north of Siberia. Four great rivers of southern Asia rise Tauric range, and empty into. Persian and Indian oceans — Euphrates, Tigris, Indus, and the Ganges. Out of the same range rise the Oxus and laxartes, flowing into the sea of Aral. On the eastern side rise the great rivers of China, Hoangho and Keangkhu, flowing into eastern ocean.