Critical essays on a few subjects : connected with the history and present condition of speculative philosophy

Front matter

BERKELEY, CALIFORNIA

THE GIFT OF

EDWARD HALE GREENLEAF

Preface

Te following essays have all appeared, at various times, in the pages either of the ‘Christian Examiner,” or of the ‘ North American Review.” They are now printed by themselves, not from the mere ambition of making a book, but because they relate mainly to one subject, and fall naturally into a series, so that being read in connexion, there is a better chance, that their meaning and purpose will be clearly perceived. Some over partial friends had also expressed a desire to see them in a distinct publication ; and as most of the pieces were written at their suggestion, or under their encouragement, compliance with their wishes seemed to be almost a duty.

In some of the shorter essays, a few paragraphs, relating only to an estimate of the books under review, are here omitted. With this exception, the articles are reprinted without alteration, — without changing even the personal pronoun, the use of which is sanctioned by invariable custom in periodical writings, in respect of the advantage it affords, in veiling the appearance of egotism. It is possible, therefore, that some repetitions and incongruities may be detected in different parts of the volume; and iv PREFACE.

there are a few remarks in the earliest pieces, which I should now be willing to qualify, or to state with considerable limitations. Study and reflection on such subjects would be profitless, if, after a considerable lapse of time, they had produced no modification of opinion. In speculative philosophy, no one should ever cease to bea learner. But on all the important topics, which are here considered, farther labor and inquiry have only confirmed the writer in his views, and slight alterations it seemed hardly advisable to make, when time could not be spared for writing the whole work anew, and digesting it into a regular treatise. 'These articles, therefore, should be regarded as imperfect essays,—as the fruits of rather desultory studies in a favorite branch of inquiry, which I once hoped to pursue with more care and method, though circumstances have now made it necessary to exchange them for other pursuits. The first essay was written only five years ago, but some of the anticipations expressed in it are already verified. 'The exclusive study and admiration of some foreign models, the effect of which was then visible only in the fantastic manner and garb assumed by certain writers, to which the criticism was chiefly directed, have now begun to modify opinions, and to excite controversy on subjects of great interest. Abstract speculations, when confined to the proper objects of philosophical inquiry, do not attract much notice; but they acquire importance, and excite the attention of all reflecting persons, when they are made to bear on the vital principles of moral and religious truth. It becomes a duty, then, not only to watch them in their results, but to trace them to their sources, and to ascertain whether the

PREFACE. V .

fountain is pure, the waters of which are conducted to the homes of men, and must serve either to impart health and strength, or to create and nourish disease. Philosophers have availed themselves of the intimate relation which exists between religious truth and their own objects of study, to gain an audience from persons, who would otherwise feel little interest in their researches. ‘They must not complain, therefore, if the process is reversed ; if their own theories are sometimes viewed only in their religious aspect, and are taken or rejected, according as they lead to sound or erroneous opinions in theology. If metaphysics are made a test of the truth of Christianity, it is but equal justice to make Christianity a test of the correctness of metaphysics.

When M. de Tocqueville, in his work upon the influence of democracy on the opinions, manners, and social condition of the people of this country, deemed it necessary to devote one chapter to a consideration of the philosophical method of the Americans, he was obliged to confess, that there was no country in the civilized world, where they cared less about philosophy, than in the United States. The observations on which his remarks were founded, were taken some years since, and at that time, perhaps, the state of opinions justified the assertion to its full extent. It would need to be qualified somewhat at the present day. But the traveller deserves great credit for his sagacity in detecting those features in the social and intellectual condition of the people, which led him to remark on their fondness for general ideas, and their aptitude for embracing a particular system in philosophy, if it should ever be brought to their notice. He might have modified his first remark,

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therefore, by anticipating a time when philosophical studies would become a favorite pursuit among a certain class of our countrymen. No attentive observer can be ignorant of the fact, that such studies have acquired favor very rapidly of late, so that it may not appear too sanguine to believe, that a philosophical school will ultimately be established in this country, with a character quite distinctive, as that which belongs to the philosophy of England, France, and Germany. The collegiate course of instruction in metaphysics is improved and enlarged. The latest European writers on the subject are eagerly studied, and translations and reprints of a few of their works are published, and find a ready sale. The effects of the prevalence of such a taste are already perceptible in the conduct of the religious, and some of the political controversies of the day. We might attribute this philosophical movement, —if we may give it such a name, —to local and temporary causes, if there were not some features in the character and condition of the people, which would seem to promise it a great extension and a permanent influence. As M. de Tocqueville has clearly shown, a love of theories and abstract speculations is fostered by the democratic character of our institutions. We "are eminently a theorizing people. No traditional opinions, no hereditary prejudices of classes and families can here exist, to fetter the wide range of thought. Hach individual is but a unit among a multitude of equals, and the conclusions which he forms for himself, he is tempted to apply to all around him, because none are separated from him by any strongly marked line of station, power, or acquirements. He generalizes rapidly, and his common

PREFACE, vii discourse often consists in great measure of abstractions. When he thinks most about his own rights, he talks most about the rights of the people. This disposition to take wide and sweeping views, is strengthened by the necessity, which the possession of a vote imposes upon him, of forming some opinion upon nearly all political topics. ‘To reason from facts in matters of legislation and government, to correct the aberrations of theory by the slow inductions of experience, to limit the application of a rule by the particular circumstances of a single case, is a protracted and difficult task. We are too busy and active a people, to give time and labor to such an undertaking. But general principles are soon stated and easily learned. By their aid, the most complicated and difficult questions are quickly settled, and any person will run the risk of applying them, since the consequences of the measure are not to affect him alone, but will fall upon the community, of which he is only a part, and such a small part too, that he fancies his share of the evil will be very small. Hence, there is great readiness among us for the discussion of general principles, and every person feels quite able to settle them for himself; but in the management of his private concerns, he will often ask the advice of another, and in all cases directly affecting an individual, he is slow to form an opinion, and distrustful of his own competency to direct. Few will venture to advise an experienced merchant about the conduct of a particular adventure, or an old farmer about the cultivation of a single field; but all are able to decide questions of legislation, which are to affect the whole commerce and agriculture of the country, because the decision here seems

Vill PREFACE, to depend only on general principles. As all doubts respecting the great subjects of foreign and internal policy may be determined with such facility, by the aid of a few abstract ideas and sweeping generalizations, no wonder that the government itself has silently been altered, and that the legislative power is no longer exercised in the mode contemplated by the founders of the constitution. The theory of a representative government is, that the body of the people, having neither the leisure nor the ability to frame laws for themselves, should delegate this power to a few individuals selected for the purpose, and confide the affairs of state to their wisdom and integrity, always holding them responsible for a breach of the trust. But the temptation to exercise the legislative power directly is so strong, and all doubts respecting the proper policy are so quickly determined by a few general truths, that the real business of the country is now transacted, not in the halls of legislation, but in the primary assemblies of the people. Legislators are chosen, not in respect to their character and talents, but to the soundness of their principles ; and they are sent to the capitol, not to debate and decide among themselves, but to register the will of their constituents. At the most, only the details of legislation are confided to their discretion.

It is not extravagant to suppose, that philosophical systems may come to be a favorite object of study among a people, who are so familiar with abstract reasoning and broad generalizations. General principles in politics do not differ so widely from the axioms of the metaphysician, that the transition from the one class to the other is a very difficult one. The habit of mind, which is created by long familiarity

PREFACE. ix with universal ideas, involves both the disposition and the capacity to enter upon the broad field of philosophical speculation. And this tendency is increased by the intimate connexion between some speculative systems and those political topics and interests, which occupy the attention of the multitude. Philosophy, like religion, considers all men as equal. Its subject is the human mind, or man in general, considered apart from all the peculiarities, by which each person is distinguished from his fellows. Its conclusions are universal, having no respect to times, countries, or individuals. Some theory of natural rights, therefore, seems properly to be embodied in these conclusions. And many writers on the subject have so considered it, and have made their whole theory of human nature subservient to the defence of a particular system of politics and government. Hobbes, for instance, founded his scheme of absolute despotism on his account of the origin of knowledge, and his explanation of the natural state and disposition of man; and Locke’s principles of toleration are the obvious results of the principles established in his essay on the human understanding. The present popularity of Cousin’s writings in this country, is to be attributed in great measure to his brilliant declamation in favor of the rights of man, by which he sought and obtained the support of the strong democratic party in France.

When the habit is once established of dwelling upon first principles and abstract truths, to the exclusion of any regard to facts, or any respect for the limitations suggested by experience, it is not surprising, that theories of society should be propounded from time to time, so novel and extravagant in their x PREFACE, character, that we are tempted to doubt the sanity of their advocates. Plans of universal reform and the regeneration of mankind, are proposed with a frequency, which appears rather marvellous to those who are accustomed to expatiate on the practical tendencies of the age. Indeed, such wild speculations may be attributed, in part, to a reaction against the narrow and selfish views, which are too common among the class of practical men. Mr. Owen contrives one scheme for reforming all the evils of social life, and some enthusiasts in our own vicinity propose another ; and a single fact illustrates the soundness of the reasoning employed in both cases; — that, starting from premises of an opposite character, they arrive at nearly the same results. ‘The honesty and sincerity of these persons are beyond question, and, since they are far above the class of ignorant and foolish fanatics, we can ascribe their extravagances only to the abuse of general theories, when not limited by experience.

The possibility of widely affecting the minds of men by abstract speculations, even when their time is occupied in manual labor, or in very practical pursuits, was fully proved by the philosophers, whose writings prepared the way for the first French revolution. ‘The effect was more startling then, because it was repressed for a long time by outward circumstances, and at last flamed out, as it were, in a single night. In that fearful convulsion, the wildest schemes for the regeneration of France, and the general improvement of the human race, were proposed by men, who openly threw off all religious restraint, and whose actions showed equal disregard of common humanity and justice. They talked of nothing but

PREFACE. xl philanthropy and virtue, while their lives were sullied by every species of cruelty and vice. They destroyed the religion of the country, and rejected all belief in the existence of a God, in order to disseminate pure philosophy, and to worship the goddess of reason.

The writings of the Encyclopedists, from which the revolution received its violent and peculiar character, inculecated a high-toned philanthropy, and the greatest respect for all moral obligations, though they were based upon a philosophy, which was eminently sensual and irreligious. ‘There is no reason to believe, that these men were insincere in their professions of regard for the interests of virtue and humanity. Many of them were probably enthusiasts in the cause, and were actuated by that earnest but vague desire for an opportunity to benefit all mankind, which is often the fruit of a life spent in study and contemplation of abstract truths. The disastrous results of their speculations must be attributed to their real ignorance of human nature, and not to their ill intentions. By inflaming the minds of the people with their brilliant theories and kindling eloquence, they wielded a power of the magnitude of which they were fully conscious, though they could not tell in what direction its force would be spent. They had the power to destroy all old associations and prejudices by the force of abstract reasoning, but they could neither restrain nor direct the enthusiasm, which they had created.

It would be irrational to suppose, that a theorizing and speculative turn of mind will ever become so common in this country, as to prepare the way for the prevalence of a philosophy quite as heated and

Xil PREFACE, erratic, as that which obtained in France. We are secured from such a calamity, by the nature of the second cause, that here deserves remark, as fostering the growth of a native philosophy in this country. I mean the religious character of our ancestry, and of the institutions and habits of thought, which they bequeathed to their descendants. The rigid Puritanism of the fathers of New England left a deep imprint on the intellect and feelings of its inhabitants, which the lapse of centuries can hardly efface. Their creeds and systems of faith, it is true, were soon modified by the love of change, and the constant impulse of free inquiry. But the spirit of their tenets survived the body. Where their religious opinions were openly assailed, or quietly laid aside, their breath still animated the dispositions and prejudices of the people. A deep tone of seriousness, a self-denying spirit in regard to amusements, and extreme cautiousness in guarding the outward conduct were left ingrained in the character. These peculiarities attract the notice of foreign visitants at the present day. They are the most striking features in the general aspect of the population.

Any speculative systems, that obtain a permanent footing here, must conform, in a greater or less degree, to these prevailing influences. A gay and mocking spirit, like that which animated the philosophy of Helvetius and Voltaire, will not be tolerated. A reckless and blasphemous one, like that of d’Holbach and Diderot, would be scouted with general indignation. If philosophers find themselves trammeled in their speculations, by the positive doctrines and unyielding spirit of Christianity, they must not proclaim open war, but strive to weaken the enemy by

PREFACE. Xili a secret and insidious contest. ‘They cannot triumph as avowed foes, but by borrowing the robes of the priest, and pretending to minister at the altar, they may hope to desecrate the service, and to destroy the worship.

A religious parentage has entailed upon us a multitude of religious controversies. While an interest in the general subject of revelation is kept alive by long habit and old associations, the freedom of inquiry and love of change, which mark the age, have led to an almost endless diversity of doctrine. The disputes, that arise, are conducted mainly by abstract reasoning, for a people impatient of any absolute authority insensibly lose the power of being convinced by appeals to Scripture. The arena of theological contests is thus opened to the layman, the logician, and the speculatist, and the weapons of attack and defence are borrowed from the popular philosophy of the day. We are not to wonder, therefore, that the questions at issue are made to turn upon these speculative dogmas, — that they relate less to the interpretation of texts, and more to what may be termed the metaphysics of Christianity. Here, again, we perceive the influence of that system of doctrine, which the Pilgrims brought with them to this country, and which is still paramount in New England. Calvinism is eminently a metaphysical creed ; it produced the only man, who has acquired an European reputation, by metaphysical writings published in America. Though no successor is found able to bend the bow of Edwards, the study of his works still keeps alive a taste for the science, of which he was so distinguished an ornament. The turn which he gave to the inquiry, treating it more as a philosopher b

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than a divine, was a departure from the method common in his day. In this respect, future controversialists are more likely to follow his example, than that of his contemporaries.

A foreigner has remarked, that the clergy in this country have shown great skill in adapting themselves to the opinions and institutions of the people among whom they are placed; that they have studied conformity to the democratic instincts of the population, and thus have preserved their influence, by sacrificing a portion of their consistency. He forgot to remark, that the clergy are themselves a part of the people, and that their sentiments are moulded by the same general causes, which direct the formation of public opinion. It is no impeachment of their sincerity, therefore, to say that the remark is well founded. Among a people, who are so much engaged in the pursuit of wealth, and so successful in its attainment, a religious doctrine, which should entirely proscribe any attachment to worldly goods, would find but few adherents. A compromise is effected, therefore, between the temporal and spiritual interests of men, and the love of gain is tacitly sanctioned, when it does not directly interfere with religious practice. Self-denying principles in this respect are seldom inculcated. 'The consequence is, that religion is made wholly an affair of the inner life, a matter of abstract faith, and outward manifestations of it are somewhat neglected, while great importance is attached to purity of doctrine.

This state of things naturally leads to a low estimate of the forms and external rites of Christianity, and such a tendency is increased by the strong desire, which a republican nation always entertains,

PREFACE, XV for simplicity and frugality in its political administration. In matters both of religion and government, we are unwilling to submit to the burden of shows and ceremonies. We attribute but little importance to the details of worship. It is said, that even the Catholic priests of this country attach themselves rather to the spirit, than the letter of their church precepts, and allow the invocation of saints, and other special forms and means of worship, to be quietly laid aside. They content themselves with a recognition of the abstract principle, on which these rites are founded, and allow the practice of them in some measure to be forgotten. A religious temperament, therefore, finding few opportunities of expressing itself in acts of outward worship, tends to create an abstract and contemplative frame of mind, and leads to an ideal life. Theological writings gradually adapt themselves to this musing disposition, and speculative dogmas form its appropriate aliment.

In these rather desultory remarks, I have endeavored to point out some peculiarities in the character and situation of our countrymen, which seem to favor thegrowth of a native school of speculative philosophy. Some of them may appear of small importance, but their general tendency cannot be mistaken, even if they produce as yet no visible effect. The consequence may appear more likely to follow, if we consider the fact, that in each of the respects above mentioned, the situation of the people here is the very opposite of that of our brethren in England, among whom, at the present day, metaphysical science is confessedly at a lower ebb, than either in France or Germany. Dugald Stewart has ended his long and honorable career, in which, xvi PREFACE.

though he made the science respectable and popular by the weight and amiability of his character, and the elegance of his style, he did not materially contribute to its progress. His successor at Edinburgh appears to be more occupied with poetry and politics, than with the duties of his office, as professor of philosophy. His colleague, Sir William Hamilton, the accomplished professor of logic, has shown so much learning and acuteness in treating metaphysical questions, as to make the public regret, that he has published nothing but a few articles, written with great ability, in the Edinburgh Review. At present, he appears to be the sole representative of the English school of philosophy. We may have greater hopes of the cause of mental science in this country, from the absence of those peculiar circumstances, which appear at present to obstruct its progress in England.

It is natural to look with curiosity and interest on those influences, which, operating on the birth of American philosophy, may serve to determine its whole future character and tendency. It is remarkable, that the authors most studied among us at present do not belong to the English school, but to the French and German, and that the general features of their speculations offer the strongest contrast to those traits, which have always distinguished the writers on the same subject in our mother country. It is not going too far to say, that Locke, Clarke, Berkeley, and Reid are not so much talked about in this country, as Kant, Fichte, Schelling, and Cousin. The reason probably is, that the only living writers of much note are of the continental school, and their works naturally first attract attention at the com-

PREFAOBR. XVil mencement of our inquiries. They have written largely, also, on the character and influence of the labors of their predecessors, and their opinions and judgments are rather hastily adopted, before an opportunity is gained for individual examination. The very partial and incorrect views, for instance, which many persons entertain of Locke’s philosophy, can be explained only on the supposition, that Cousin’s Criticism of the Essay on Human Understanding is much more studied than the Essay itself. In no other way can I account for the prevalence of the opinion, that Cousin’s work is a masterpiece of philosophical criticism, when, — whatever may be its merits in refuting certain obnoxious doctrines, that are stated in it, these doctrines are quite gratuitously ascribed to Locke, with reference to whom, indeed, the whole work is but a tissue of misrepresentations. So also the belief, that Kant’s philosophy is a refutation of skepticism, must rest on the assertion of some of his countrymen, among whom there exists a very different rule and estimate of what constitutes skepticism, from that which obtains in this country and in England. Instead of confuting his predecessor, Kant simply established Hume’s doctrine on a different basis, and then carried out its principles and modes of reasoning, till they covered the whole field of knowledge; and this work he performed with such an appearance of method, completeness, and close deduction, as to change what was merely a philosophy of doubt and uncertainty, into a theory, which may be called the dogmatism of unbelief.

Most of the following Essays were written in the hope of throwing some light on the character and

ae

XVI PREFACE, tendency of afew of those foreign systems of philosophy, which have recently become popular among us. My object was to consider each of them as a whole, and in its probable operation on the course of thought in this country. Partial and fragmentary views of their doctrines are common enough; but there are great obstacles in the way of forming full and correct notions of their nature and bearing. They are of great compass, and exist in many distinct works; they are wrapped in the darkness of a foreign language; and many of them are further veiled in an obscure, intricate, and repulsive terminology. The few translations, that have appeared, are not executed with much skill, and contain, at the most, but the mere fragment of a theory. Before their probable influence can be estimated, it is necessary to have some connected sketch of them as a whole, though the sketch be necessarily a very imperfect one. It is important, also, to consider them in the relations which they bear to other systems, to ascertain their points of departure from doctrines formerly received, and thereby to know whether they will probably aid or obstruct the progress of philosophy. This general design I have kept in view, even in those Essays, like the two on the argument for the Divine Existence, which may appear from their title, to relate toa wholly different subject. The influence of the study of foreign philosophy may now be perceived in the mode of thinking and reasoning, which many persons have adopted, on topics that have only a remote connexion with metaphysical science.

It may appear to some, that the writer entertains a strong prejudice in favor of the metaphysicians of

PREFACE. xix the English school. I am not conscious of any such bias, so far as concerns the doctrines, which are taught, apart from the manner in which they are conveyed, and the spirit with which the inquiry is conducted ; though the great names of Bacon, and Locke, and Berkeley, and Reid, stand as high in the general history of philosophy, as any others, of which any single country can boast. No one need to be ashamed of a hearty admiration of their characters and services, though he may not admit, that their labors have exhausted the subject, and may search for further contributions to the science, wherever they can be found. But in all that relates to the mode of philosophizing, to the tone of argument and opinion, and to the manner and spirit in which the investigation is conducted, we may fearlessly assert the great superiority of the English speculatists, over their brethren, on the continent. It was well said by Sir James Mackintosh, that ‘“an amendment of the general habits of thought is, in most parts of knowledge, an object as important as even the discovery of new truths, though it is not so palpable, nor in its nature so capable of being estimated by superficial observers. In the mental and moral world, which scarcely admits of any thing which can be called discovery, the correction of the intellectual habits is probably the greatest service which can be rendered to science.” If the writings of Bacon and Locke and their followers do not contain more discoveries, than those of any other school, they have certainly done more good to the minds and hearts of those who have studied them. The character of their speculations is eminently sound and healthful. They remove prejudices and vindicate the right of free xx PREFACE.

inquiry ; they inculcate generous sentiments; they discourage the love of paradox and fanciful systems ; they show the compass of the human faculties, and while they animate the spirit of discovery, when directed to proper objects, they tend to check its arrogant and hopeless endeavors; they inspire the liberal and catholic feeling, which would make philosophy the property of the multitude, rather than the exclusive heritage of afew. If it argues a timid and slavish spirit, a blind adherence to the past, and distrust of the future, to recommend their example in these respects, there will be many, who will court the reproach, and glory in the companionship, which they will have under the imputation.

Some materials for instituting a comparison, in these particulars, between English philosophy and the speculations which had their birth in France and Germany, will be found in the following pages. The bearing of these systems on the great truths of natural and revealed religion, is a point of so much importance in the general estimate of their character, that no apology need be made for the space given to its consideration. A science that is merely speculative, offers no boon of such great price, that it can compensate mankind for the loss of immortal faith and hope; and if the reproach of an irreligious tendency be indelibly affixed to it, it will be the part of true wisdom to renounce its cultivation altogether.