Civic Science in the Home

Front matter

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Foreword To The Teacher

Man's place in relation to science. — Living things, man included, live in an environment which is made up of certain definite factors, and with. these faqtprs living things react and interact. Some of these- factors are -materials — things ; other factors are forces. The ultimate result of the complex we call life is the interaction of the materials and forces with the living things on the earth. Man, however, is supreme among animals because of all the animals he alone can control the factors of his environment. He has control of fire and water and electricity. His home has evolved from the cave of primitive man to the complex housing systems of the present age. His communal life has brought with it new problems — the disposal of wastes, the safeguarding of water and milk supplies, the need of community sanitation and hygiene. His higher civilization demands use of machines, the need of which his forefathers neither knew nor felt ; of transportation and communication ; of more varied and practical education as well.

Children's interests in science. — In the midst of such a life as this our children are growing up. Science beckons to them from every side. In every device used at home for comfort and better living, science speaks. The telephone and telegraph, the trolley and the automobile, the airplane and submarine, have all become part and parcel of their daily lives. Many of the common things of science which directly aflFect the lives of children are equally interesting to both sexes. But in any scheme of modem education we must take individual differences into consideration. We no longer educate in the mass. Sex, age, environment, capability, heredity, all are important factors which must be recognized by the modern teacher as having a place in educational practice as well as theory.

6 FOREWORD TO THE TEACHER

The project method. — Since we must allow for individual differences in our scheme of education, it goes without saying that mass education, which does not account the child as a personality, can no longer be admitted as a part of our scheme. We must take cognizance of all the factors mentioned in the last paragraph ; environment, age, and sex act more uniformly and thus may be taken into account in the forming of classes or groups. But individual capability and endowments, heredity's part in the game of life; are much more difficult factors with which to deal. Recent developments in educational psychology show that one method of attack, however, has certain elements which may be used successfully with any group of children not too young to think to a conclusion. Problem solving of one sort or another is common to all the activities of life. It is the one great factor which goes toward making for success or failure in life. It should be part of the mental attitude of every educated person. Problem or project, call it what you will, represents the method by which things worth while in life are achieved. It offers the pupil a method for accomplishing those things in life which mark off greatness from mediocrity — the leader from the led.

Methods in science adapted for children. — We hear a good deal nowadays about the logical versus the psychological approach. No teacher, and the word is used in its truest sense, can teach except from the viewpoint of the child. Approached from this angle, the psychological becomes logical. We must have a plan, but we must remember that a plan may sometimes be changed to advantage. Above all we must be human. If we but remember how we looked at things with the eyes of thirteen instead of those of forty-three we will have no difficulty in solving the method of lesson attack. We must remember, too, that concepts grow and are not always brought to maturity in one lesson. The cyclic treatment of topics, which has been followed in Civic Science, is a far more natural method of

Foreword To The Teacher 7

acquiring information than a dogmatic statement, made perhaps with proof but dimly comprehended and soon forgotten.

The textbook in introductory science. — Any book in introductory science should be based on the facts we have just mentioned. It must contain an adequate amount of the basic material from which the interpretation of the common things of interest in life may be gained, and it must also be adapted to start the individual boy or girl whose interest has been awakened along the line of the project in which this developing interest would naturally flow. Most of all a textbook should interpret to the child the part played by the various natural factors in his environment. It should conceive the child as the center, and all the world of the child revolving around this center. In this conception boys and girls would first become aware of the vital part played by air, water, light, heat, and food on them as individuals within their homes. This much is common to all — the application of certain of the general facts learned could then be carried out as special projects by various pupils interested. After the child has learned the meaning of these central factors in the home, the next step would logically be the application of the forces of nature by man in communal life. In short, Civic Science plans to lead the child in a manner which is both logical and psychological from the simple factors which make up his environment as a living thing to the complex combinations and interactions which have arisen through what we call civilization. It is the interpretation of this complex that Civic Science undertakes with the belief that children, if given a rational point of view, will have enough varied interests to build on the outline which follows. They will thus work toward the solution of those things in science which seem most worth while to them as individuals and most worthy of them as future citizens.

Acknowledgments. — For an incentive to undertake this work, the authors are indebted to those educators who have

8 FOREWORD TO THE TEACHER

written much on the subject of science for young people, particularly, Thomas M. Balliet, Thomas H. Briggs, John Dewey, Charles W. Eliot, David Snedden, George R. Twiss, and John F. Woodhull. To the many science teachers who have been active in developing general science from its early beginnings to its present state, the authors make full acknowledgment for much help and inspiration. Acknowledgment for illustrative material is made in the text. The drawings were nearly all made by Mr. F. M. Wheat, of the George Washington High School, New York. The following teachers have carefully read the entire proof and made many valuable suggestions: Mr. M. C. Leonard, Vice-principal, Dickinson High School, Jersey City ; Miss A. P. Hazen, Head of the Department of Biology, Eastern District High School, Brooklyn ; and Mr. George C. Wood, Head of the Department of Biology, Commercial High School, Brooklyn ; and also Miss Lydia Holtman, Knox College, Galesburg, 111.

Dewey, Honv We Think, especially Chapters IV, V, VI, and XV. D. C. Heath Company.

Flexner, A Modern School^ New York Occasional Papers No. 3. General Educational Board, New York.

Hunter, Laboratory Problems in Civic Biology, Foreword. American Book Company.

Huxley, Physiography. Appleton Company.

Snedden, Problems of Secondary Education, Chapter XXI, Houghton Mifflin Compwiny.

Trafton, The Teaching of Science in the Elementary School, especially Chapter V. Houghton Mifflin Company.

Twiss, Science Teaching, especially Chapters II, III, IV, and XIX. The Macmillan Company.

Woodhull, The Teaching of Science, The Macmillan Company.

Contents

PAGE

Part I. The Home And Its Environment Chapter

I. Why We Study Science ii

II. Essentials of an Ideal Home 24

in. Natural Resources of Home Environment ... 39

PART n. GOOD HEALTH IN THE HOME

IV. Pure Air 56

V. Water in the Home 74

VI. The Uses of Foods 90

VII. Pure Food in the Home 115

Vin. Household Pests and How to Fight Them . . .131

IX. How Wastes Are Removed from the Home . . . 144

X. Germ Dangers and Health Habits . . .158

Chapter I

Problems. — i. Why is some knowledge of science essential to us?

2. Why is the " method of science " important?

3. What is a science project?

Living in an age of science. — Do you ever stop to think you are living at a time when science has done more to make everyday life comfortable than at any other time in the world's history? You sleep at night in a bed, the springs and parts of which were made by machinery, and the covers of which were woven by a compUcated process ; you wash with soap made by chemical processes ; you eat prepared breakfast foods, and cook on a gas, coal, or wood stove. You eat in machine-pressed dishes; ride to school on electric cars, or trains, or automobiles, the parts of which were made by machines. Every part of your waking and sleeping hours you come in contact in some way with devices which involve a knowledge of science, and yet how few actually know very much about the science which underKes all these useful and beneficial inventions.

II

Man's progress in science recent. — Have you ever thought how many things have come into common use since your father and mother were born ? X-rays, flash lamps, radium, the pianola, liquid air, submarines, gas engines, sky scrapers, harvesters, vacuum brakes, fireless cookers, vacuum bottles, vacuum cleaners, street cars, airplanes, hydroplanes, motor cycles, gas mantles, automobiles, carpet sweepers, asphalt paving, safety matches, pneumatic appliances, moving pictures, typewriters and adding machines, wireless telegraphy, pneumatic mailing tubes, electric heating and cooking apparatus, turbines, paper towels, electric lighting, reenforced concrete, sanitary drinking fountains and cups, and a great

A tc.lumph of modem science. How .many Kien- many Other thingS

SCIENCE USED IN THE DISCOVERY OF MALARIA 13

look upon as necessities of life. Could any one be considered educated without knowing more than we do about science?

Reasons why we should study science. — Since scientific devices are used so much in and about our homes, we ought to have at least some practical knowledge of the common things in science, so that we may know how to help solve the problems that come to us. With a little knowledge, we can fix leaking faucets ; we can .find out why the electric bell does not ring ; we can explain why the ice box is not preserving food properly or why the bread does not rise. Some day we shall be called upon to earn our own living. Opportunities for promotion in many fields of work will be small for those who do not understand common things in science. The practical machinist who can apply his knowledge of the principles of science to the working of his machine is the foreman in the shop. Then too, our health depends in a measure upon the knowledge of science. It used to be thought that diseases like diphtheria, for example, were the dispensation of Providence, but nowadays we look nearer for the cause, and find it to be germs.

An example of how tiie method of science was used in the discovery of malaria. — The Itahans thought formerly that malaria was caused by bad air, and hence they called it tncU aria. The discovery of malaria is an interesting story. It was near the end of the last century that a French physician named Laveran discovered that malaria was probably caused by a tiny parasite which lived in the blood cells of man. He reasoned that this was so because he found the little animal only in the blood cells of those suffering from malaria. A little later an English anny surgeon named Ross, working in India, found after a long series of experiments, that mosquitoes had something to do with malaria. He knew that they were blood-sucking insects, and that they were always present where malaria

Ths life biator; of the malBrUl paiislte. Tbia cot shows parts of the bodjr of Iho

blood of HUD. Thasa enter the blood corpuaclea, develop sjnrea which, aftei being HleRsed from the corpusde, (onn two kinds of ceUs. These two forma of the pausite are sacked with the blood into the body of [he moaquito. where the other part of the life cyde of the paraaite takes place.

was frequent. He reasoned that mosquitoes might carry this germ. He worked a long period of time before he found finally that a certain kind of mosquito, called anopheles, had some unusually tiny bodies attached to the

SCIENCE USED IN THE DISCOVERY OF MALARIA 1$ inside of their stomachs. These little microscopic bodies were full of black specks. Ross found later that these black specks were only present after a mosquito sucked blood from a person having malaria. By a process of reasoning and experiments, he discovered finally that not only did these mosquitoes carry malaria, but that people could not have malaria unless they were bitten by one of the anopheles mosquitoes, for a malarial parasite has to live a part of its life in the body of the person who has malaria and another part of its life in the body of the mosquito.

Then came the testing of this remarkable theory in Italy. A nimiber of people who worked in a malarial region, near the city of Salerno, were persuaded to live in houses which had been carefully screened. It was discovered that the malarial mosquito came out only at night. Practically none of the people who stayed in the house at night behind their screens got malaria, although almost all of the people in the immediate neighborhood were suffering from the disease.

The final proof that the mosquito carries malaria.

i6 WHY WE STUDY SCIENCE

The final proof came when two English physicians, Dr. Manson and Dr. Warren, allowed themselves to be bitten in England by mosquitoes which had been sent from Italy, but which had been previously fed on the blood of a person having malaria. Neither of these men had had malaria previously, but eighteen days after they were bitten, they both came down with the disease. This is an excellent example of how scientific method is appHed in the discovery of new facts important to mankind. All we have to do to escape malaria is to be sure that malarial mosquitoes do not bite us.

A study of the method of science. — If we study this scientific method more fully, we find, first, that th^ scientist has a reason for trying to solve a problem. He thinks over this problem, and finally gets clear in his mind just what he wants to find out. He has then fixed his problem. His next step is to try to find out some method or methods of solving it. This he does by thinking over various ways in which he can attack it. He finally fixes on some method which he tries out by means of experiments to test whether his theories are correct. He may and often does have to perform himdreds of experiments before he is satisfied that he has a correct solution. This was the case with Dr. Ross as he worked over his problem of how the malarial mosquito played a part in giving the disease to people. At length, after he has satisfied himself that he has the solution to his problem, he must then put it to a practical test. . This was done, you remember, by the English doctors who allowed themselves to be bitten by the mosquitoes, and thus proved that mosquitoes transmit malaria.

The method of science useful in daily life. — This method of science which we have just described should become a

SCIENCE USED IN STRAIGHT TfflNKING

5,

)e It A d •e is d U d

s t r part of the daily life of every educated person. It should become a habit of mind, a way of thinking. Scatterbrained pebple may think ; we find, in fact, that we think when we daydream, but we do not organize our thoughts, nor do we put them to any use. Science was once called by a great scientist, " organized common sense," and such, it really is. Nowadays too many people reason from statements heard which they want to be true. They have

We estimate, we compare, we verify in the method of science and in everyday life.

heard only one side, and do not care to know any other. Bolsheviki are good examples of such people. People who can think straight are the ones who succeed in Ufe. A dangerous attitude of mind results from careless, wrong modes of thinking.

How the method of science is used in straight thinking. — When we think properly, we are using some steps that the scientist uses when he plans to work out his problem. Take, for example, any question in your daily life that comes to you. It comes in the form of a problem. Your father has rented a new house. Your mother has promised you a room of your own, and a new rug for it. You are visiting the house. You look at the room, and try to make up your mind as to its size. You think it is about ten feet by twelve

H.-WmT. CIV. SCI. IN IHE HOME — 2 i8 WHY WE STUDY SCIENCE

feet, and therefore you will want a rug not larger than eight feet by ten feet. You have estimated the size, but you may be wrong. You compare it with some* room with which you are familiar in your own house. Yes, it seems to be about ten feet by twelve feet in size, but you decide it will be better to measure it. So you get a tape measure and you find that you were practically correct. You have verified your conclusion. In other words you have followed the method of scientific thought. You have estimated the size, compared it with other rooms, and reached a conclusion; you measured it, and found you were correct.

The habit of scientific thinking. — If we use this method at all times we shall acquire a habit of mind that will be very useful in later life. This method teaches us to be accurate in our judgment. It teaches us to observe. It teaches us not to accept a statement without evidence. It teaches us to weigh the evidence, then draw our conclusions and finally to verify our conclusions. This habit of mind is worth much more than any number of facts that this book can give.

How we use this method in our home work. — We get out of life just about what we put into it. Each one of us will get just as much from the method of science in this course as we are willing to work out with enthusiasm. In any event, boys and girls taking a course in general science will get a great deal of valuable information which will be useful during life. Much of the information will be found in this book and in other books which are suggested in the reference lists. But the method of doing things we must learn outside the reading books. To work out home problems or projects with such simple apparatus as is needed to draw conclusions, is far more profitable than

THE PROJECT 19

memorizing any number of facts, for by scientific methods such as these, people make discoveries which are of value to the world.

The project and how it may be worked out. — You are the one to plan your own project and work out the problems connected with it. It will not mean so much to you imless you want to know about the thing you are trying to do. Books, people, and experiments may all help toward the achievement of your project, but you must carry it through yourself. Take, for example, a project to determine the best methods of cleaning a room. This would mean investigation on your part of the construction of brooms, wet and dry dust cloths, dustless dusters, carpet sweepers, vacuum cleaners, and of the methods used in performing the work. Not only should the mechanical working of these devices be understood, but also the amount of time and labor spent in cleaning a room with each must be estimated or measured separately. We would naturally be interested to know also how much this time is worth, and that should go into our estimate of the value of the different methods. But more important is the knowledge of how much dust is raised by each method and the relative number of bacteria which would be stirred about in the air. To understand this it would be necessary for us not only to know something about the bacteria themselves, but also to perform experiments with a series of prepared culture dishes by which we would determine the relative niunber of bacteria in the air during each method of cleaning. These culture dishes may be obtained from the board of health, or a good laboratory, or a culture medium made and the dishes filled and sterilized in the school laboratory. Eventually you have a seriQ3 of facts which enable you to determine which is the best method of cleamng a room. A written report giving all data by which you have reached your conclusions and including interesting facts learned by your study completes your project.

In order that you may be able to choose some one project in which you will be interested, a suggested list of projects follows at this time. These projects will be mentioned again in connection with the chapters with which they are connected. But since projects require planning and often a considerable length of time to work out, you should choose your projects now and begin to plan work on them at once. In this way you will be ready to report to the class at the right time.

A LIST OF SUGGESTED PROJECTS

1. To learn the advantages of renting and of owning one^s home. Page 24.

2. To make a home laboratory. Page 39.

3. To discover and remedy harmful effects of air about the home. Page 39.

4. To increase my lung capacity. Page 56.

5. To secure pure air in my bedroom. Page 57.

6. To prepare for life saving where artificial respiration must be used.

7. To make a lift pump. Page 74.

8. To see how much water is wasted by dripping faucets. Page 74.

9. To see what nutrients are in the foods commonly used in my home.

10. To obtain starch from potatoes. Page 90.

11. To plan for economical buying for our family for one week. Page 91.

12. To test and preserve eggs for home use. Page 115.

13. To pasteurize the home milk supply. Page 116.

14. To exterminate flies from my home. Page 131.

1$. 'To prepare myself to keep the house plumbing in order. Page 144.

16. To compare my daily use of time with an ideal plan. Page 158.

17. To form correct health habits. Page 159.

18. To make a house thermometer. Page 175.

19. To qualify as an expert heating device operator in my home. Page 188.

TOOLS WITH WHICH WE WILL WORK 21

20. To learn how my coal range is constructed and how to run it. Page 189.

21. To remove the fire hazards from my home. Page 205.

22. To find out what my clothes are made of. Page 219.

23. To improve the lighting in my home. Page 238.

24. To remedy any eye defects I may have. Page 253.

25. To plan an ideal house. Page 267.

26. To become a landscape gardener for my own home. Page 286.

27. To learn the soil needs in my garden for any particular crop. Page 297.

28. To eliminate the plant pests from my home grounds. Page 314.

29. To keep the machines of the home in good working condition. Page 33 1 .

30. To install an electric bell in my home. Page 344.

31. To install a night light in my bedroom. Page 359.

32. To understand the mechanism of the piano and the piano player. Page

33. To plan how to utilize the playgrounds of the home lot. Page 390.

Tools with which we will work. — A notebook in which to make careful notes of all work done is an essential part of our equipment. We should always take notes of everything we do, both in the laboratory and at home. These notes should be carefully kept, and drawings made to illustrate them, either with a hard pencil or with a drawing pen. We must learn to use instruments with which to measure. The use of the metric system is best for all scientific measurements, and a knowledge of the metric tables will be found valuable. We must also know how to use a compass and a T-square, and other instruments useful in diagram making. Perhaps the most essential thing of all is to learn the value of accurate figures, as this is needful in the makmg and understanding of graphs. A graph is the diagrammatic representation of a certain number of figures. An example is seen in the diagram on page 22, in which we are illustrating the changes of temperature which take place during a day. The figures of the thermometers and clock faces show the temperatures at different times during the day and the hours. The figure on the squared paper shows how the graph is constructed. It is important to learn the making and understanding of simple graphs, as a knowledge of this kind should be part of the equipment

Obscrre that the giaph time temptiatncn thmt tha tl of every well-informed boy and girl to-day. Last of all, and perhaps most important, we need enthusiasm for our work. Success along any line requires attention, thought, and interest. Interest is valuable in school work and failure is often due to indiflference. Surely in this great world of science about us, there is enough to interest each one of us.

Fall, Science for Beginners, Chapters I and II. World Book Company.

Hunter, A Civic Biology, Chapter I. American Book Company.

Hunter, Laboratory Problems in Civic Biology, Chapter I. American Book Company.

Lee, Health and Disease (Advanced), Chapter XV. Little, Brown, and Company.

Ritchie, A Primer of SanUation, Chapter XXIV. World Book Company.

Smith and Jewett, Introduction to the Study of Science, Chapter XII. The Mac-

millan Company.

Window, Healthy Living^ Chapter XXm. Meirill Company.