Composition and rhetoric for higher schools

Front matter

“SNGSTOWN UNIVERSITY

FOR

HIGHER” SGHOOLS

Preface

CERTAIN demands may fairly be made of any text-book that purposes to serve the cause of good. teaching and aims to win an honorable place in the classroom. Two of these demands take the form of the categorical imperative: the book must be practical, and it must be adequate in scope and content. To these two should be added a third — the book must be interesting; for to sentence students to the use of a dull and lifeless text-book is, often, to condemn them to a lifelong distaste for the subject of that particular book. ‘Then, in these days of many books, the newcomer may fairly be asked to show some traits of its own such as stamp personality on a man or a woman, — traits which will mark it out at once from other books in its class.

Two of the important characteristics which give this book its distinct individuality are: (1) The cumulative method of treatment shown in the text, in the illustrative examples, and especially in the exercises ; and (2) The constant emphasis laid on the pupil’s own thinking and writing. These features are particularly well illustrated in the treatment of the paragraph. In the early part of the book the single paragraph is made the unit of writing ; then, naturally and gradually, related paragraphs are introduced; and, finally, these develop into the longer theme. The student at first gains a clear understanding of the meaning of the paragraph by observing its use in v vi PREFACE the selections given for retelling another person’s thought ; next by the study of its relation to his own notes and outlines ; and then by using it in his own writing. Still later in the course the pupil takes up the analytical and detailed study of the paragraph and its essential qualities — unity, coherence, and emphasis. Throughout the work on the paragraph, as in all other subjects treated, the student is led to develop for himself a simple and natural theory and practice of writing.

The book is divided into four parts to mark the natural stages in the development of the subject, and to aid teachers in the arrangement of their work. Part I begins with reviews of Grammar and Punctuation. The exercises in these reviews are so arranged as to furnish valuable written work; but if it is desired, the chapters may be used primarily for reference. This Part also includes the necessary instruction for retelling another person’s thought, and for the expression of the pupil’s own thought in simple description from observation and in simple narration from experience.

Part II treats description and narration in a more advanced way, emphasizing the use of the imagination in producing certain desired impressions. There is also a thorough discussion of the theme and its preparation.

Part ITI deals with the parts of the completed theme — the paragraph, the sentence, and the word. The pupil’s critical and analytical view of his own work is appropriate at this stage of his writing, and correlates well with his work in the college requirements.

Part IV treats the prose forms of composition, especially the oration and the debate, with considerable

PREFACE vii detail. It also furnishes interesting composition work in connection with the analysis of a typical novel and drama, and with the study of poetic forms. Chapter XIX on Figures of Speech is a reference chapter, to be used whenever needed. ;

Other less prominent but particularly helpful features of the book are: the sections on translating into English, on note-taking, on making outlines, on the writing of examination papers, on the use of the library, and on the use of the dictionary. Topical headings, summaries at the close of chapters, cross-references, pictures, and the index are also important.

In giving the work to the public we desire to express grateful appreciation of the encouragement and help rendered by various teachers. For valuable suggestions and critical supervision while these pages were going through the press, we are especially indebted to Mr. Frederick D. Nichols, recently in charge of the Department of English in the Academy of the University of Chicago, Morgan Park, Illinois; Dr. Laura E. Lockwood, Instructor in Literature and English in Wellesley College, Wellesley, Mass.; Mrs. Emily Meader Easton, recently Head of the English Department of the Classical High School, Providence, Rhode Island; and Mr. Frank M. Bronson, Academy Assistant Professor in the University of Chicago.

THE AUTHORS,

SPECIAL MARKS OF CORRECTION

The marks of correction used by proof readers, presented under the topic “Use of English Dictionaries ” (see § 228, 11), are recommended for use in the criticism of themes. The following list of abbreviations provides other marks of correction commonly used:

AMD, 2. os) 0) 2 BNDISCIby

Awk.. . . . . . . awkwardness.

eid Sh G2 8° b, Go ow on) SRPROR MRIS TaL

Cd. 2s . es. = need of condensation: Cu. So > See | lack of coherence: Ie yee el ae ene lacks olemphasis: uphill elackioleuphonys: IGE od Ben be 4 6 eeEhaexgomayer JO ee Ge Lo eulllnge salenere.

Gram. . 3.4 4. . « poor grammar. imps es ee IM proprietye

Poe Sen) -) i) POOL pUuNnccuations Rede 22) . os Redundancy.

Sp. 5... 7S 8) oe pour spelling

Watts G3. « 2» tatelegy.

Tr. . » © #5 « « need-of transposition.

Var... . . . . « lack of variety.

fo. « 6 +. ©. false or'doubtiul statement, 11... « «© »« . » pretentious language.

CHAPTER

VILE

XVI.

XVII.

XVIII.

XIX.

Contents

Parr I

REVIEW oF ENGLisH GRAMMAR .

REVIEW OF PUNCTUATION : RETELLING ANOTHER PERSON’S Tne?

Chapter I

“Grammar is the humble,. oft-despised, but truly loyal handmaid of thought’s best expression.”

1. Language. The word “language” is derived from the Latin lingua, meaning tongue. Its first meaning is, therefore, the expression of thought by the use of the tongue. But there are other ways by which thought may be communicated. For example, some of the North American Indians have a method of conversing by gestures, without speaking at all; sea captains often “ wig-wag,” 7.e. talk with one another at a distance by signals; the Egyptians exchanged ideas by means of “hieroglyphics”; and all civilized people use written signs. In its broadest sense, therefore, language means all the ways in which men make known their thoughts. In the common use of the term, language is the expression of thought by means of spoken or written words. 1

2. Words. When we speak or write the word “horse,” we as truly make a sign, as a deaf-mute does when he expresses the idea “horse” by his fingers. Our sign for horse cannot be understood by any one who does not know the English language; for different languages have different words —?.e. signs — for the same idea. Words are signs of ideas. Many words suggest distinct ideas.

Ex. Farmer, cat, dog, house, rose, call up to our minds pictures of persons, animals, or things.

Walk, write, sing, suggest kinds of action. Yellow, blue, tall, beautiful, suggest qualities belonging to persons or things.

If, however, we wish to say “‘A boy is in the tree,” we cannot express our idea perfectly by saying “boy... tree,” still less by saying “boy ... is... tree.’ That is, it is not enough to use simply words which express distinct ideas. We need also certain other words, — a, in, the, —to call up a clear picture to the mind. So we see that words which connect or limit other words and show their relations are needed in the expression of complete thoughts.

3. Sentences. Words may be joined to form statements or sentences. A sentence is a combination of words that expresses a thought and that contains a subject and a predicate. The subject is that part of the sentence which represents the person or the thing of which something is said. The predicate is that part of the sentence which represents what is said of a person or a thing. The sudject is usually a name, or it contains a name with other modifying words. The predicate must contain a word that has the power of asserting or stating something. In the sentence, “ The boy ran away,” ran is the asserting word. In the sentence, “The apple is red,” ¢s is the word that has the asserting power, but ved represents the idea that is to be asserted. This is sometimes called the ‘‘ predicate idea,” or attribute, and red is called the “predicate term,” or attribute of the sentence.

4. Construction. The relations of words to each other in sentences are shown in three ways: (1) by their form; (2) by their arrangement; (3) by the use of connecting words like and, when, in, for, etc. In the expression * John’s book,” the form of the word “John’s” shows the relation of “John” to the book; that is, it shows that he is the possessor of the book. In the sentence “James struck Thomas,” the order of the words helps to show that “James” performed the action and that “Thomas” received it. In the expression “The ambition of a soldier,” the relation of “ambition” to “soldier” is shown by the word “of.” The relation in which a word stands to other words in connected speech is called its construction.

5. Grammar. Some words change their form to express different ideas, and the ‘same word may have different constructions in different expressions.

The study that treats of the forms and the constructions of words and sentences is called grammar. Grammar does not make the laws of a language; it only states them in an orderly way.

6. Value of the study of grammar. Grammar does not accomplish its full purpose unless it becomes a practical aid to writing. While it is possible to use the English language correctly without studying grammar, still such study ought to hasten the process of acquiring skill in composition. The following review is intended to emphasize the most important usages of the English language now approved by the best writers and speakers.

II. CLASSIFICATION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH

7. Number and names of the parts of speech. ‘There are eight parts of speech, or classes into which words are divided according to their use. These parts of speech are called nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections.

8. A noun is the name of a person, a place, or a thing.

1. A proper noun is the name by which we distinguish a particular person, place, or thing from others of the same kind.

Ex. Henry, Shakespeare, Boston, Declaration of Independence, Central Park, the Mayflower.

2. A common noun is usually the name which may be applied to any one of a whole class of persons, places, or things.

Ex. Boy, city, bird, pencil.

Some kinds of common nouns are given special names.

1. Names of qualities and general ideas are called abstract nouns.

Ex. Beauty, goodness, truth, anger, success. 2. Names of groups of persons, animals, or things are ealled collective nouns.

Ex. Crowd, class, school, army, congregation; flock, herd ; fleet, cluster,

3. Nouns formed from verbs are called verbal nouns.

Ex. Skating is good exercise. To run is fine sport.

9: : A pronoun is a word that is used instead of a noun. It stands for, but does not name, the person or thing that the noun names. 1. A personal pronoun distinguishes the speaker, the person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of. Ex. I, you, he, she, it.

2. A relative pronoun refers to some noun or pronoun called an antecedent, and connects the clause introduced by the relative with that antecedent. The most common relative pronouns are who, which, that, what, whoever, whichever, and whatever. Who and whoever relate to persons; which and whichever, to things; thaé, to either persons or things.

Ex. -Sir Walter Scott, who was a famous novelist, was also the author of several notable poems.

Water, which is composed of oxygen and hydrogen, is necessary to life.

The book that you want is on the table.

8. Who, which, and what, when used to ask questions, are called interrogative pronouns.

Ex. Who is there? Which will you have? What do you want?

4, An adjective pronoun is a pronoun which can be used as an adjective. ‘The most important adjective pronouns, this and that, are called demonstrative pronouns because they point out. Certain other adjective pronouns are called numeral pronouns. ach is a distributive pronoun.

Ex. This is my book. Those are my apples. “Many are called, but few are chosen.” Each of the debaters is honest in his views.

10. An adjective is a word that describes or limits a noun or pronoun.

1. A descriptive adjective assigns a quality.

Ex. A large apple was given me by a kind farmer.

2. The definite article the and the indefinite article a (or an)! are adjectives, because they are used to limit nouns.

Ex. The captain praised his men.

A captain was killed in battle.

3. A pronominal adjective is an adjective that can be used as a pronoun. The most important pronominal adjectives are the demonstrative, distributive, and numeral adjectives.

Ex. That teacher has given several oranges to each boy in his class.

Every man in both armies may be a true patriot. 4. A proper adjective is an adjective formed from a proper noun.

Ex. Scottish, Roman. 11. A verb is a word that asserts something concerning a person, place, or thing. Alone or together with other words it may form the~predicate of a sentence.

Ex. Go, runs.

A group of words which performs this office is called a verb phrase.

Ex. May do, might have been seen.

1An is used before words beginning with a vowel or a silent h; a before other words, including those beginning with the consonant sound of y or w.

1. A weak (or regular) verb is a verb which forms its past and past participle by adding ed, d, or t to the present.

Ex. Present Past Past PARTICIPLE fill filled filled compare compared compared dwell dwelt dwelt

2A strong (or irregular) verb is a verb which forms its past and past participle by changing the stem vowel of the present tense without adding any ending.

Ex. Present, sing; past, sang; past participle, sung. 3. A transitive verb expresses action and usually needs to be followed by some noun or pronoun in order to complete its meaning. This noun or pronoun is the direct object of the verb.

Ex. The boy learned his lesson.

4, An intransitive verb cannot have a direct object.

Ex. The boy came to school on his bicycle.

5. An auailiary verb is a verb that helps another verb to assert action. The most common auxiliary verbs are be, have, do, shall, will, may, might, should, etc.

Ex. The lesson ye ‘ well learned. was

The pupils have gone home.

I shall go to the concert to-night.

91430 ine ary

6. A copulative! verb is a verb which connects an attribute or predicate term with the subject; as, “God is good,” “The apple seems mellow.” Be is the usual copulative verb; but seem, become, and a few other verbs are similarly used.

7. A defective v2-b is a verb which lacks many of the usual verb forms.

Ex. Ought, must, and most auxiliaries.

8. An impersonal verb is a verb which has no definite subject. Jt usually stands as the subject.

Ex. It rains. It seems.

12. An adverb is a word which modifies the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. ‘The most common kinds of adverbs are those of time, place, manner, and degree. Adverbs of time, place, and manner usually modify verbs; adverbs of degree usually modify adjectives or other adverbs.

Ex. The books are now on the shelves. (Time.) There is the man you want. (Place.) The ship sailed slowly away. (Manner.) This apple is very large. (Degree.)

13. A preposition is a word which shows the relation between a noun or pronoun, used as its object, and some other word or words in the sentence. ‘

Ex. The boy ran away from school, and caught five trout in a brook on his father’s farm.

1Jn distinction from copulative verbs, all other verbs are called by some grammarians attributive verbs.

A REVIEW UF ENGLISH GRAMMAR 9

14. A conjunction is a word which connects words, phrases, or clauses.

1. A codrdinate conjunction connects words or groups of words of the same rank.

Ex. Mr. Brown and Mr. Smith are neighbors. It seems easy for some people to say one thing and to mean another.

William went to the seashore, but his sister went to the mountains.

2. A subordinate conjunction connects groups of words of unequal rank; usually a subordinate clause with a principal clause (see § 39, 2).

Ex. We missed the train because he was late.

Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him. If you see Margaret to-day, please give her this book.

3. Correlative conjunctions are conjunctions that are used in pairs. The correlatives most often used are either... ors neither . =~. nor.

In a similar way a few conjunctions are paired with other words.

Ex. Both . .. and; not only .. . but also.

Norr. — For the position of correlatives in the sentence, see § 209.

Ex. Both the President and the Vice-President of the United States are hard-working men.

Neither Harry nor Richard has translated his Latin lesson. Ejther you must take back what you have just said, or we can no longer be friends.

Not only his duty, but also his inclination, prompts him to be kind to his mother.

15. An interjection is a word which expresses surprise, anger, pleasure, or some other strong feeling.

Ex. Pshaw! why did you do that?

Hurrah for John Grey !

Alas! you have done him a greater injustice than you know.

In the following quotations, tell to what part of speech each word belongs :

1. At my coming back, I shot at a great bird, which I saw upon a tree on the side of a great wood. I believe mine was the first gun that had been fired there since the creation of the world. — Derroer.

2. Sweet are the uses of adversity, Which, like the toad, ugly and venomous, Wears yet a precious jewel in his head ; And this our life, exempt from public haunt, Finds tongues in trees, books in the running brooks, Sermons in stones, and good in everything.

SHAKESPEARE. i

Write a sentence in which you use five or more parts of speech. Tell what parts of speech you have illustrated.

Il

Write out the following exercises :

1. A sentence in which you use a collective noun, a descriptive adjective, a transitive verb, and an adverb of place.

2. A sentence in which you use a proper noun, a numeral adjective, and a personal pronoun.

3. A sentence in which you use an abstract noun, a relative pronoun, and a subordinate conjunction.

IV

In each blank space supply a conjunction, state what kind it is, and tell what it connects:

. Every man would live long; no man would be old.

Iron, lead, gold are metals.

Mary Jane was at school yesterday. one the other of us must give way.

oR gp she had told the truth, all would have been well. 6. He continued his story, —— his listeners were singularly preoccupied thoughtful.

lil, CHANGES IN THE FORMS OF PARTS OF SPEECH

16. Inflection. Inflection is the change in the forms of words usually made by adding terminations to the stem or root. Greek, Latin, and most European tongues have many inflections. ‘The same was true of Old English; but the language has long since dropped most of the inflections, their place being largely supplied for nouns and pronouns by prepositions, and for verbs by auxiliaries. The names of the old inflectional forms are sometimes conveniently used to designate words which have lost their real inflection, but which retain a certain agreement with other words. For instance, the objective case of nouns is as truly gone from the language as the dative. Yet because pronouns have an objective case, nouns to which they refer still have a certain agreement that it is convenient to call the objective case. Again, the relative who has no personal forms; yet if its antecedent is a personal pronoun its agreement with that pronoun determines the person of the verb of which it is the subject; as, “I who speak,” “He who speaks.” Except in such instances, it is well to avoid the use of terms which belong more properly to the grammar of the highly inflected Old English.

y, CHANGES IN NouNS AND PRONOUNS

17. Almost all personal forms remaining in the English language belong to personal pronouns and to their agreement with other words. A verb is said to be in the same person as the noun which is its subject, or a personal pronoun with the noun with which it is in apposition; but the noun seldom changes its form to denote person.

The pronoun of the jirst person denotes the speaker. Ex. I, my, me; we, our, us.

The pronoun of the second person denotes the person spoken to. Ex. Thou, thy, thee; you, your.

The pronoun of the third person denotes the person spoken of. Ex. He, she, it; they.

18. Number is the form of a noun or a pronoun which shows whether one or more than one is meant. ‘There are two numbers, singular and plural.

The singular number means but one.

Ex. Boy, child, ox; I, thou, he, she, it; this, that.

The plural means more than one.

Ex. Boys, children, oxen; we, you, they; these, those.

Number belongs to nouns, a few pronouns, the demonstratives this and that, and a few verbal forms.

19. Some important facts about the plurals of nouns.

1. Most nouns form their plurals by adding s to the singular.

SINGULAR PLURAL girl girls book books chair chairs

2. Most nouns ending in s, si, ch, x, or s form their plurals by adding es pronounced as another syllable.

SINGULAR PLURAL dress dresses thrush thrushes church churches box boxes adz adzes

3. Most nouns ending in y, preceded by a consonant, form their plurals by changing y to 7 and adding es.

SINGULAR PLURAL lady ladies baby babies city cities

4. A few nouns ending in 0, preceded by a consonant, form their plurals by adding es.

5. Most nouns ending in f or fe form their plurals by changing f to v and adding s or es.

6. Foreign nouns usually retain the plurals of the language from which they come. Many of them also have a plural in § or es.

T. Letters, figures, and other signs form their plurals by adding ’s.

x ANB, Sy OX Ss, Res,

8. Many nouns are always singular or always plural.

Ex. Sing. peace, flesh, electricity.

20. Gender is the form of a noun or a pronoun which distinguishes sex. There are three genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter. ‘The masculine gender denotes male beings, whether men or animals; the feminine gender denotes female beings, whether women or animals; and the neuter gender denotes inanimate objects. Very few nouns now change their form to show gender; yet the change may be seen in such words as prince, princess; hero, heroine; executor, executrix. There are many nouns which include in their meaning the idea of male or female sex, or no sex; and it is often convenient to refer to these as masculine, feminine, or neuter nouns, especially when they stand as antecedents of pronouns which take agreeing gender forms. The personal pronoun of the third person singular has three genders: masculine he, feminine she, neuter it.

21. Case is the form of a noun or a pronoun which shows its construction. ‘There are three cases: nominative, possessive, and objective.

Ex. Nom. he, she, they, I, we, thou, who. Poss. wy, our, thy, your, his, their, whose. Obj. me, thee, them, whom.

22. Noun constructions. The chief noun constructions are shown in the following sentences.

Ex. The man is old. (Subject.)

He is a man. (Predicate Nominative.)

Mr. Smith, the man that you saw, is here. (Appositive.)

I saw aman. (Object of a verb.)

Speak to the man. (Object of a preposition.)

He gave the man'a dollar. (Indirect object.)

The experience has made him a wiser man. (Predicate Objective.)

Man, who told you so? (Nominative Independent.)

The man being ill, we excused him. (Nominative Absolute.)

23. Nominative and objective cases. The noun preserves the same form in all of the constructions just given. The

1 The Latin dative.

pronoun, however, has the nominative form when used as subject or as predicate term; as, “He is coming,” “It is he.” It takes the objective case as object of a verb or a preposition. In the absolute participial construction, the nominative case is used in modern English; as, “He being ill, we went to see him”; “It being he, we ran to meet him.” This construction is similar to that found in the Latin where the ablative is the absolute case. Although logically correct in English, the nominative absolute is not used by the best writers, who prefer in ordinary cases a more direct form of sentence.

In general, an appositive takes the same case as the word which it explains, and the noun or pronoun that follows the verb be (or any copula) has the same case as the word that precedes the copula, the words standing in the relation of subject and predicate terms.

24, The possessive case. The possessive case is the form of a noun or pronoun which shows possession.

Ex. Man’s, ladies’; my, your, his, their.

The possessive singular is formed by adding ’s to the noun. This possessive ending is a contraction of the old Anglo-Saxon termination es or ¢s. In general, only the names of persons and animals have possessive cases, though in poetry, and rarely in prose, a possessive sign is added to other nouns as well. If the singular noun ends in 8, usage varies in the form of the possessive. Some writers add the apostrophe only; others add ’s, except in a few instances, such as “ Moses’ law” and “for Jesus’ sake.”

A REVIEW OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR lye

The possessive plural of nouns is formed by adding simply an apostrophe when the plural ends in s. When it ends in some other letter, ’s is added; as, children’s.

It will be observed that in the possessives of pronouns no apostrophe is used. The secondary forms, mine, theirs, etc., are generally used without the noun and may be used in either the nominative or the objective case.

Ex. This book is mine. (Predicate Nominative.) They study from theirs. (Object of Preposition.)

If several nouns indicate joint possession, the possessive sign should be used with the last noun only.

Ex. They have a special sale of gloves at Jordan & Marsh’s.

If separate possession is implied, each noun should take

the sign of the possessive.

Ex. Mr. Grant’s and Mr. Allen’s houses were both struck by

lightning to-day.

She refused to listen to her parents’ or to her ae 8

advice.

EXERCISE I

In each blank space, supply appropriately 7s or are:

1. Oats now being harvested.

2. “ Horses” of the plural number, because it means more than one.

3. there any news in the city?

4. Great pains taken to preserve secrecy.

5. The whereabouts of his family not known.

6. The wages of sin death.

7. Physics interesting to study.

8. my scissors in your workbasket ?

9. Measles not commonly a dangerous disease.

10. The phenomena most strange.

II

In each blank space, supply the possessive singular or plural of some appropriate noun:

a diamonds are of priceless value.

2. The writings of sister have never been published.

3. Mrs. B. has just sold library at auction.

4. You remember having painted a tea-set for her sister, do you not?

5. I cannot bear to think of for they seem so helpless.

being left alone in the world,

Use the plurals of the following words in sentences of your own:

Cherub, spoonful, man-servant, parenthesis, sheep, fish, alumnus, Miss Clark, talisman, princess, zero, heathen.

IV In each blank space, supply the correct case of some pronoun

1. My brother did fully as well as 2. What were you and talking about?

3. My mother and —— have gone to the city.

4. respectfully.

5. The pupil’s progress will depend largely upon diligent in practice.

being

6. That was the largest congregation ever gathered in the church. tle did you say called this afternoon ? 8. that seek shall find.

9. Such persons as 10.

AB are not fit associates for you. does she look like?

do you take me to be?

who

12. Do you think it was did it. 13. Is that the dog

? It might have been you bought of Fred ? 14. Between you and I don’t believe a word of it. 15. The strikers, went out six months ago, are now forced to go back to work without extra pay. 16. do you think I am? 17. Is it whom you wish to see? 18. I do not know whether those strangers are the Grahams ; but I suppose it is 19. The Colonel’s horse 20. Was it you or the wind 21. Who is there? It’s only 22. The old man left his fortune to those his friends. 23. What do you think of 24. Has everybody solved 25. If any one is there, let has gone lame is his favorite. shut the door ?

he thought were studying Latin ?

examples ? answer.