Hand-Loom Weaving Plain & Ornamental

Front matter

o

Regasy eighty Aas i my

THE ARTISTIC CRAFTS SERIES OF TECHNICAL HANDBOOKS _ EDITED BY W. R. LETHABY

Chapter I The Rudiments Of Spinning And Weaving

The Comparative Importance of the Weaver’s Art— Scope of Hand-loom Weaving—Weaving Universal—The Construction of Plain Cloth—The Warp-—-The Weft—Relative Size of Warp and Weft—Preparation of Threads for Weaving—Flax and its Prehistoric use—Retting and Scutching of Flax—Preparation of Cotton, Wool, and Silk— Carding, its Purpose and Method—Fine Spinning by Machinery—Ancient Spinning with Distaff and Spindle—The Distaff—The Spindle I

CHAPTER II THE INDISPENSABLE APPLIANCES FOR SIMPLE WEAVING The Origin of the Loom—Looms in Ancient Art and

Literature— Egyptian and Greek Looms— The Essential Part of the Loom—The Cross in the xiil

Contents

Warp—The Simplest Practical Loom— Demonstration of the Cross—Special Need for the Cross in Long Warps of many Threads—Preparation of the Warp—Ancient Warping—A Simple Method of Warping for Domestic Looms

CHAPTER III THE WARPING BOARD The Warping Board—The Necessity for Strength in all

Weaving Appliances—The Warping Board in Use —Securing the Crosses in the Warp—Warping Several Threads at once—The Reel- or Bobbin-carrier, and its Use in connection with the Warping Board—The Portee Cross—Taking off the Warp —The Hand-stick

CHAPTER IV THE WARPING MILL The Warping Mill necessary for Long, Full Warps

—Description of the Warping Mill for Silk-weaving —The Bobbin Frame—The Heck-block—Demonstration of spreading a Warp—Regulating the Length of Warps—The Heck—The Gatherer—The Count and Length of Warps; how calculated— Threading the Heck—Beginning a Warp—Taking the Cross—The Ratchet and Wheel of the Heck-block—Mending Threads

SHAPTER?V TURNING ON, OR BEAMING

Turning on, or Beaming—The Raddle, or Vateau—

Selection of a Raddle for a particular Warp—The XIV

PAGE

PAGE Cane Roller and Cane Sticks—The Raddle Stand Contents for Small Warps—To separate the Portees—Distributing the Portees in the Raddle—Turning on in the Loom—Position of the Cane Roller in the Loom—Means of turning the Roller—Assistance required in turning on—Method of keeping the Warp Hard on the Roller 60

Chapter VI The Beaming Drum

The Essential Part of Beaming Machinery—The Drum and its Fittings—Friction Brakes—Ropes of the Drum—Space necessary for Beaming—Importance of Accuracy of Detail in Weaving Operations— Turning-on Posts—Appliance for Beaming in Confined Space—Winding the Warp on the Drum-- Beaming with the Drum 73

Chapter VII The Hand-loom For Automatic Weaving

Opening or shedding the Warp for Wefting—Shedding the Warp without Appliances—Simplicity of Egyptianand Greek Weaving—The Headle-rod—Ancient Horizontal Looms and Automatic Sheds—Indian and Chinese Looms—The Old English Hand-loom —The Loom Frame—The Rollers—The Ratchet and Wheel—Friction Brake for Cane Roller—Comparison of Indian and English Looms—-Automatic Method of opening the Shed—The Long Comb or Reed—The Batten—Position of the Harness and Batten—Preparations for entering the Warp in Harness and Reed—Gating the Loom 81

XV

Contents CHAPTER VIII THE ACCESSORY APPLIANCES OF THE LOOM

The Hand-shuttle— Superiority of Hand-shuttle Weaving—The Fly-shuttle—The Batten for the Fly-shuttle—The Raceboard—The Shuttle-boxes —The Pickers—The Picking Stick—The Action of of the Fly-shuttle—Advantages of the Fly-shuttle —The Temple—The Skein Reels—The Doubler —The Quill-winder— Other Tools— Method of Weaving with Hand-battens—Method of Weaving with Box-battens

Chapter IX Tapestry-weaving

A Definition of Pattern-weaving—Ancient Textile Decoration—The Origin of Tapestry-weaving— Tapestry a Variety of Plain Weaving—The Effect of tight and loose Wefting—Tapestry-weaving necessarily an Artistic Handicraft—Tapestry akin to Embroidery

Chapter X Page

Itt

THE SIMPLEST WARP AND WEFT EFFECTS OF PATTERN

Further Definition of Pattern-weaving — Patterns possible on the Loom with only Two Headles—The Striped Webs of India—Ancient Use of Striped Cotton Hangings—Patterns resulting from striping the Warp—East African Woven Design—Various

XVI

Simple Warp Patterns—Simple Weft Effects— Tartan Patterns—Inlaying or brocading—Primitive Indian Brocading—Usual Method of Brocading— Binders or Ties—Brocading on Weaving Board— Extra Headle for Brocading—Long and Short Eyes of Headles—Cashmere Shawl Weaving—Origin of Brocading

Chapter XI Single-harness Patterns

| Ruled Paper and its Uses—Sketches of Entering and Tie-up—Designs possible on a Loom with few Headles—The Position of Cloth in Weaving— Tying up the Loom—Plan of a Tie-up—Simple Twills-- The Broken Twill, its Importance—Origin and Peculiarity of Satin-weaving—The Four-headle Twill — Method of drawing Designs for Simple Looms — Simple Pattern with Tabby Ground throughout, its Advantages

Chapter XII The Satins And Double Cloth

/ Construction and Utility of Satin Tie—Meaning of the Term Satin—Peculiar Quality of the Satin Tie—Various Satins and the Number of Headles required for weaving them—Reasons for weaving Webs Face Downwards—Exceptions—The Selvages of Satin and other Webs—Separate Selvages and their Fitting up—When Separate Selvages are necessary—Contrast of Colours in Satin Webs and its Limits—Double Cloth, its Advantages—Preparing and entering the Warp for Double Cloth— Weaving Double Cloth

XVil b

PAGE

Contents

Contents CHAPTER XIII SHEDDING MOTIONS PAGS

The Simplest Shedding Motion—Two Typical Shedding Motions—Differences between the Two Kinds of Shedding Motions—Choice of Shedding Motion left to Weaver—Suitable Design for Shedding Motion No. 2 I9l

Chapter XIV Double-harness Pattern-weaving

Diaper-weaving—Example—Patterns in Double Cloth —Indian Example—Use of the Figure Harness —Use of the Tabby Harness—Importance of the Two-harness Method of Weaving—The Weaving of Small Damask Patterns with Two Harnesses—Details of Weaving Figured Damask —Analysis of the Effect of the Two Harnesses— Shed-making for Damask Patterns—All Modern Weaving of Pattern based on Two-harness Principles—Weaving from Two Separate Warps —Velvet-weaving and its Methods—Arrangement of the Loom for Velvet-weaving — Actual Process of Velvet-weaving—Principal Tool for Velvet-weaving — Terry Velvet — Superiority of Hand-loom Velvet— Small Designs in Velvet— Tobine Weaving 199

CHAPTER XV AUTOMATIC MACHINES FOR SHEDDING MOTIONS Automatic Shedding Motions and their Use—Disadvantages of the Jacquard Machine for Home Weaving—Comparison of it with Simpler Machines xviil

A PAGE —The Jack-in-the-box—Its . Inventor—Character Contents of Old Hand-loom Weavers—Tie-up and Working of the Jack-in-the-box—The Drawboy Machine, its Details and Use—Examples of Pattern-weaving with Drawboy 229

Chapter XVI The Draw-loom And Thread Monture

Ancient Origin of the Draw-loom—lIts Importance in Weaving—Description of Draw-loom—Building the Monture—The Two Kinds of Repeating Patterns—-The Comber-board—The Pulley-box— The Tail Cords—The Simple and Guide Cords —The Term Cords in reference to Design— Rigidity of Lateral Repeats on a Loom—Freedom of Vertical Repeats—The Drawboy—The Drawboy’s Fork—The Most Perfect Loom—The Thread Monture—Various Uses of the Thread Monture— Examples of Silk-weaving on Thread Monture 251

Chapter XVII The Shaft Monture

Invention of the Split or Shaft Harness—The Comber-board for Shaft Harness—Building a Shaft Harness—Description of Various Parts of the Harness —The Shaft Harness in Use—Note on regulating the Length of Designs—Draughting Designs— Examples of Shaft-harness Weaving 276

X1X

Contents CHAPTER XVIII

BROCATELLE AND TISSUE WEAVING PAGE

The Technique of Brocatelle Webs—Weaving Brocatelles— Draughting for Tissue weaving—Two Methods of mounting Binders—Old Spitalfields Tissue—Broché Tissues—General Utility of Shaft Harness—Shaft Harness for Coarse Materials— Tissues of Wool, Linen, and Cotton on Shaft Harness—Examples of Modern Wool Tissues—

Old Method of Tissue weaving without Split Shaft Harness 285

Chapter XIX

THE COMPOUND MONTURE Advantages of dividing the Monture—Description of the Compound Monture—Examples of Compound Monture Weaving—Old English Brocade—

Eighteenth-century Striped Brocade—French Late Seventeenth-century Brocade 306

Chapter XX Figured-velvet Weaving

Pile and Terry Figured Velvet—The Draught—The Monture—The Preparation of the Loom—The

Bobbin Frame—lItalian and Spanish Velvets 320 ConcLupiInc NoTEs 322 GLOSSARY 325 INDEX 331

List OFesPi ATES

Plates originally printed in collotype are now produced in half - tone

“Greece, B.c.500 British Museum, London

VI, Spindles, Whorls, and Loom Weights, Ancient Greece British Museum, London

VII. Tapestry Ornaments. Fragment of a Robe of Amenhetep II., found in the Tomb of ThothmesIV. Amenhetep, whose Ka name is woven in the design, reigned in Egypt, B.C. 1500 Cairo Museum

Frontispiece To Part II.

VII. Copy (in progress) of a Portion of the East African Web, illustrated by Plate I. By the Author

XX1

FACING

PLATE

IX. Piece of Eighteenth-century Silk-weaving, illustrating Tobine Stripes Victoriaand Albert Museum, South Kensington

X. Fragment of Seventeenth-century French Brocade, a most perfect specimen of the Weaver’s art Author's Collection

FRONTISPIECE TO Part III.

XI. Example of French Silk-weaving, time of Louis XIII. Size of design, 30” x 21” Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington

XII. Copy, by the Author, of Eighteenth-century Fine French Silk. A portion of the design only is shown. The part photographed is the full size of the original

XIII. Copy, by the Author, of Sixteenth-century Italian Brocatelle. A portion of the design only is shown, about half the actual size of the original

PAGE

XIV. Spitalfields Tissue in Green and Gold Silk. -

Date about 1900 = The Author's Collection

Thisis shown as an example of skilful weaving, not of fine design

XV, Wool Hanging designed, draughted, and arranged for weaving by the Author for St. Christopher’s Church, Haslemere. The colours are scarlet, blue, green, and white

XVI. Portion of Hanging of woven wool and coarse silk, Designed, draughted, and arranged for weaving by the Author

XVII. Brocade, probably Old English. The lower portion of the photograph shows the method of brocading with small shuttles at the back Author's Collection

XVIII. Figured Velvet. The ornament is composed of cut and terry pile. This specimen is beautifully designed and perfectly woven

Victoriaand Albert Museum, South Kensingtow

XXil

PAR I PLAIN WEAVING

20 Sl aS a5 3 uw ie nan 3 =| 00 Suu zi = Oo Ss ie is imi

Plate I.—East African Weav Pr

British Museum, London.

WE

<7

Chapter I The Rudiments Of Spinning And Weaving

The Comparative Importance of the Weaver’s Art— Scope of Hand-loom Weaving— Weaving Universal —The Construction of Plain Cloth—The Warp— The Weft—Relative Size of Warp and Weft— Preparation of Threads for Weaving—Flax and its Use Prehistoric—Retting and Skutching of Flax—Preparation of Cotton, Wool, and Silk—Carding, its Purpose and Method—Fine Spinning by Machinery —Ancient Spinning with Distaff and Spindle—The Distaff—The Spindle.

Ir may be confidently affirmed that the art of The Scope weaving occupies a place of importance and useful- and Value of ness to mankind second only to that of agriculture. the Weaver’s We shall reach this conclusion whether we take Art into consideration the number of persons engaged

in the various branches of the art, the universal

practice of weaving in ancient and modern times, or

the necessity and value of the productions of the

weaver’s craft and industry to society in general.

a i

The Scope

If necessary it could be proved by statistics that at and Value of least one-fifth of the working world is occupied the Weaver’s either with weaving and its allied trades, or in the

Art

Possibilities of Hand-loom Weaving distribution of its finished materials. It would be found also that a similar proportion of the general expenditure is for woven goods of one kind or another. .

It is not only, however, from an economic point of view that the art of weaving is of such interest and importance, but also on account of the vast amount of invention and ingenuity, both of a mechanical and an artistic kind, that it has been the means of calling forth. These qualities have been shown during the course of its development from the elementary and laborious attempts of primitive tribes to the elaborately finished and swiftly wrought, though complicated webs woven on the modern power-loom. It is this aspect of the subject—viz., the development of textile art from its earliest beginnings—that the present volume is intended to set forth. A clear account of the principles and practice of the art of weaving, and the possibilities and limitations of the loom and its accessories, cannot fail to be of interest and value to the antiquary and to the collector of ancient textiles, as well as to the designer, the weaver, the distributor, and the purchaser of the various kinds of modern woven fabrics.

It will not be necessary, nor, indeed, would it be possible within the compass of this handbook, to follow the subject of weaving beyond the point when it ceased to be a handicraft, owing to the introduction of the Jacquard machine and the application of steam-power to the loom, which events took place at the end of the eighteenth Possibilities century. These changes in the construction and of Handmechanism of the loom did not alter the principles loom of weaving in the least, nor add any new effects of | Weaving combinations of threads to those previously in use.

The inventions only affected the exactness and

speed of the weaving, the motive power by means

of which the loom was driven, and rendered easy

a frequent change of pattern. No real advance

in weaving technique has taken place for a hun-

dred years, as nothing more perfect is possible in

the weaver’s art than the sumptuous webs of

silk, of exquisite texture, which were deliberately

woven by hand on the perfected draw-looms of

Europe during the seventeenth and eighteenth

centuries.

The first principles and practice of the art of Universality weaving, wherever they are found, are universally of Weaving similar. Primitive peoples of to-day follow the same methods and use the same appliances as those of ancient times. And as it is on these that all later textile developments are based, it will be necessary in the first place to define them clearly.

A visit to the ethnographical department of any ot our museums, and an examination of their contents, will prove that there is scarcely a savage tribe, however primitive, which has not some more or less proficient acquaintance with the art of making thread and of utilising it in the weaving of cloth (see plate 1). Also, the specimens of ancient handicraft, such as those shown in plate wu, which remain to us, as well as other less direct evidence, will show decidedly that the people of antiquity were familiar with the arts of spinning

Universality of Weaving

The Construction of Plain Cloth

The Warp

The Weft and weaving, which they practised with a great deal of skill and carried to a high pitch of perfection. Indeed, so universal and so ancient are the occupations of making thread and weaving webs that they appear to be instincts as natural to the human species as to the caterpillar and the spider.

If we look carefully at a piece of plain cloth we find it to consist of a number of longitudinal threads placed side by side, and intersected, or interlaced, by a continuous single thread. ‘This thread passes alternately before and behind the longitudinal ones, and has been introduced between them from edge to edge, by some means and in such a manner as to bind them together and hold them in position. When thus united the threads are woven into a flat, orderly, and uniform-surfaced material, of more or less durability, according to the strength of the threads of which it is composed and the closeness and evenness with which the crossing thread has been pressed down and beaten together. By means of plate mr the arrangement of the longitudinal threads and the continuous thread crossing and intersecting them should be made quite clear. The longitudinal threads of a woven material are always called the warp, because, in order to allow of their being intersected conveniently by the continuous crossing thread, they have to be warped— that is, tightly strained in their position on some kind of frame prepared for the purpose. The longitudinal threads are known as the warp and by no other name, but the continuous crossing thread has several technical names, the most usual being weft, weof, or shoot—sometimes spelt shute,

In the magnified piece of plain cloth (plate rr) the warp threads are seen at once to be much finer than the weft thread. This is always the case, except in the most elementary attempts at weaving. And the threads differ not only in size, but in the manner in which they are prepared for use. The warp threads need to be hard, having thin strands strongly twisted together. The weft thread is only slightly twisted ; this makes it soft and yielding, and enables the weaver to press it well down and to beat both warp and weft together into firm, good material. The selection of properly proportioned threads is of the highest importance in weaving, for the good appearance of the finished work depends almost entirely upon it, as also does its durability.

The simple methods and appliances for making thread and weaving adopted by different ancient peoples and by primitive tribes of to-day are remarkably similar in kind. But the raw materials used and the manner of preparing them differ considerably, and depend, of course, on the natural products with which the particular people happen to be familiar, and the inventive skill which they possess. The most obvious and simple of all raw materials for weaving were the long grasses and rushes, or other plants, with which the weaver was acquainted, which could be readily split into filaments or used entire. But the rudest people readily become aware that many animal and vegetable substances are capable of being drawn out and twisted together into a continuous thread, of more or less firmness and strength, and they accordingly soon invent for themselves some simple appliances for performing this operation.

The Relative Size of Warp and Weft

Various Threads and their Preparation for Weaving

Flax and its Preparation Prehistoric

Previous to the introduction of cotton from India and the marvellous development of the cotton industry in this country during the last century, the most important of all the various kinds of thread for weaving purposes was obtained from the stems of the family of plants known as the Linum family, of which the flax has always been the chief member. Animal wool and silk—the only natural continuous thread—have been chiefly used for ornamental fabrics, but flaxen or linen thread has always been the most used and the most useful for ordinary purposes, ‘The earliest specimens of knitted and woven thread at present known are fragments that were found amongst the remains of the lakedwellings in Switzerland, and. which are attributed ; by the most reliable authorities, to the age of stone. These venerable relics are therefore prehistoric. They consist of small bundles of flax fibre, both raw and twisted into threads of various thickness. Some are made into ropes and nets and others knitted or woven into pieces of cloth (see plate tv). In Egypt, in Greece and Rome, and, with one or two exceptions, in all the more or less civilised countries of the ancient world, flax was used and preferred above all other fibres for weaving purposes. It is remarkable that the cultivation and preparation of flax, even at the present day, is almost identical with that in use in ancient Egypt four or five thousand years ago. Probably the reason why cotton has, within the last century, almost superseded the use of linen, is because it is better adapted for preparation and weaving by machinery and takes more kindly to all sorts of abominable adulteration, so that it can be ee cheaply put upon the market.

The valuable portions of che flax plant are the dark brown seeds, usually called linseed, and the inner fibres of the stems, which by a severe course of treatment become linenthread. After the flax has been pulled up by the roots the seeds are first shaken out. The plants are then made up into small bundles and immersed in water until they begin to ferment. As soon as the fermentation has begun they are taken out of the water and allowed to dry in the open air. This process is called rettimg, and when it is complete the leaves and outside membrane of the stem are easily removed.

The roots and small stems are next cut away, and the main stems ure then ready for the next operation, called skutching. ‘The purpose of the skutching process is to thoroughly clear away all remains of the outer membrane and the short, useless veins of the leaves, and to straighten out the inner fibres and lay them all in

GN.

JEAGCHB.

Flax and its Preparation

Fic. 1

Flax and its one direction ready for twisting into thread. Sharp Preparation toothed combs of various sizes are used for this j we ee sf Ae “\

Fic. 2.—Stripping Hemp in Burgundy, skutching, coarse ones at first and finer ones afterwards. ‘he fibres are finally made up into convenient bundles. By this process the filaments of the flax are thoroughly cleaned and separated, and converted into a fine, silky kind of tow. This, in brief, is the manner in which the best flax is prepared for the linen thread of to-day, and there is evidence to show that it was in just such a manner that the flax was prepared for the thread of the state robe of “fine linen” given by Pharaoh to Joseph in ancient Egypt as a mark of his royal favour.

The down of the cotton plant and the fleece of the sheep need much less preparation than the fibre of the flax. The former only have to be cleaned and the fibre cleared by the process of carding, which will presently be explained, and the cotton or wool is ready to be operated upon by the spinster who makes it into thread.

Silk is produced ready spun by the silkworm ina continuous double thread, and only requires to be unwound from the cocoon, as the case is called which the caterpillar twists and winds curiously around itself when ready to change into the chrysalis form. When unwound the cocoon is found to consist of a continuous double thread of silk about one thousand yards in length, but of such exceeding fineness that it takes from ten to twelve hundred cocoons to weigh one pound. So fine, indeed, is the natural filament that twelve strands have to be twisted together in order to make the finest thread of silk that it is practically possible to use for weaving. The twisting and cleaning of these threads of silk is technically called st/k-throwing, and is a most delicate and elaborate process.

The operation of carding by hand requires the use of a pair of implements called cards (fig. 34).

Flax and its Preparation

The Preparation of Cotton and Wool

Silk Thread produced by the Silkworm ready spun

Carding

Carding

Fie. %

¢} + ‘ Yy, yp i Me i i» ye

Gs

I VR i \ lk -~ & \ ry La eh \, We S A aaa SY a , \\"

Fic. 3a.—Pair of Cards.

Plate III.—Illustration of Warp and Weft intersected. See page 5.

They are made of hard wood, and each has one of its flat surfaces covered with tough leather, into which a large number of points of thin steel wire have been very strongly and evenly fixed. A small quantity of clean cotton down or fleecy wool is spread as evenly as possible on the steel points of one card. This card is then held by the handle, with the points upward, in the left hand of the operator, who sits to the work and rests the implement flat upon her knee. The other card is then taken in the right hand, and its points pressed firmly down upon the fibre to be carded. The right-hand card is then drawn smartly over the left-hand one in the direction shown in fig. 3, which movement tears the fibres apart and straightens them out. When this action has been repeated a few times the straightened fibres will be found lightly attached to one edge of the lower card. They can then be transferred to the smooth back of the other card, and with a few deft taps of the back edge of the one from which they were taken, may be made to assume the curled shape shown at the foot of fig. 3a. When it has been worked into this neatly curled form the carding is ready to be drawn out and twisted into thread.

Spinning, as its name denotes, is the process by which the short filaments that have been separated and combed into order by the carder or skutcher, are drawn out and joined by being twisted or spun together into a continuous thread, or yarn. This yarn can be spun to an astonishing degree of fineness. ‘The finest ever known to be made was spun by machinery and shown at the great Exhibition

I!

Carding

Spinning

Spinning

Spinning with Distaff and Spindle of 1851. It was a cotton yarn, and a single pound of it, it was said, would measure one thousand and twenty-six miles in length. This yarn was only made for exhibition, and was of no practical use. The finest cotton yarn used in weaving is spun by machinery, and runs, as it is called, three hundred miles to the pound weight. Needless to say, the ancient method of spinning by hand could never produce a thousand miles of thread from a single pound of cotton, but the hand-spinners of India spin, for use in the Dacca muslin industry, one pound of cotton fibre into a length of thread which measures two hundred miles. ‘The Eastern spinners can also spin wool or flax into yarn of a hundred miles to the pound weight. These figures have been approached if not quite reached by good spinsters of Europe.

The figure of a spinster (plate v) is copied froma painting on a Greek vase preserved in the British Museum. © It gives a fairly good general idea of the method of spinning by the primitive means, viz., by the use of the distaff and spindle. It is not wise, however, to put much faith in the details of ancient pictures of this kind, as we shall have occasion to notice particularly when we come to consider the representations of ancient looms. Artists and poets, in ancient times, seem to have been content if they succeeded in conveying a general impression of a figure or scene they intended to represent, without much regard to accuracy of detail. In this case the graceful figure is holding up a stick, the distaff, on which a tightly wound ball of thread is fixed; and at the end of the thread, which passes through the right hand of the figure, a spindle is turning. All that we can learn from this figure is that the distaff and spindle were used in ancient Greece for the purpose of making s thread, but neither the i with Distaff and Spindle

YIN Spinning g Wey details of the process of WE spinning are explained nor jy re is the position or action YAM \y nN of the figure suitable for UA Se NY the work. Whenonlythe 4 distaff and spindle are used 7 for spinning, the distaff is Hey We usually fixed under the a | spinster’s left arm, so that ‘lti4 the prepared flax, loosely ‘\\H wound upon its end, may jf project in front of her. ) By this method of fixing the distaff the hands of the spinster are both left free, the one to twist the thread and the other to keep the spindle duly rotating.

The distaff (fig. 4) is simply a round stick of wood about fifteen or eighteen inches in length, at one end of which the flax, or other raw material prepared for spinning, is loosely wound in such a way that

The Distaff

Fic. 4 The Distaff

The Distaff

Fig. 5.—Spinning with Distaf and Spindle, and twisted together by the spinster. NUE Wh ee The distaff is sometimes, although — ae not generally, used for cotton and y wool—these are for the most part spun from the cardings, which are joined on as required ; but the distaff is always used for the spinning of flax. When the distaff is fitted up, or the cardings ready to the spinster’s hand, she deftly draws out a few filaments, sufficient, in her judgment, for the thickness of the thread required, and gradually twists them into an even thread without detaching them from the distaff or carding. When a sufficient length of thread is thus twisted it is attached to the spindle, _ which is then made to revolve, and

as it spins it assists in evenly twisting the gradually drawn out thread. As the length of thread increases, the twisted yarn is wound upon the spindle from time to time, until it is conveniently full ; then the thread is cut, and a fresh spindle attached in place of the full one (fig. 5).

The spindle (fig. 6) is simpl a slender metal or hardwood rod, from six to ten inches in length, having at one end, or in the centre, a round weight, and at the other end -a hook, or notch, for the purpose of holding it in a vertical position the fibres can b dily d QO e readily drawn out \\\| ae y The Distaft

Fic. 6.—A Spindle. break at A is about half a yard.

The length of thread indicated by the

The Spindle

The Spindle

\\ ae i { oy \ ae \N\ A Sy \ MA a

Fic. 7.—Spinning with Wheel.

S : S ss spenpcrer artemis scenery _ 2 = = S$ i N x8 * a SS e o S a ae EN one = ke su ss aa cs AS -OS SR BRM ORE ere Ee MOD RON oo The WERE REET RRR Be £8 9 Toi inie near ees eS PONT EN 5 CR “ot

OSD Seer?

ae th Sw:

MEE GON Were d <2 \ EN , < ‘ : we eres ‘ ; eee eS whe Bet oes tin ENE

KCB SHA Se

SH OF LES ee ‘

Bey

* oe ay hs wie

NG SOG

Plate [1V.—Fragments of L

Plate V.—Figure of a Spinster. Wase Painting of Ancient Greece, 500 B.c,

See page 12, British Museum, London.

when the thread is attached to it. Spindles are of The Spindle various weights and dimensions, according to the

size of the yarn for the spinning of which they are

used. Plate v1 shows ancient spindles preserved in

the British Museum.

This method of spinning with these simple appliances, the distaff and spindle, seems to have been universal. It is still used by primitive peoples, and the best, strongest, and most durable thread is even now produced by its means. The method also illustrates perfectly the essential principles of the making of all thread. The use of machinery for spinning, whether it be only the simple, picturesque, medieval spinning wheel (see fig. 7), or the elaborate machinery of the cotton-spinning industry of the nineteenth century, did not alter the principles of the process in the least. ‘These only enabled the work to be carried out with increased speed and with greater exactness of result.

CHAPTER I

THE INDISPENSABLE APPLIANCES FOR SIMPLE WEAVING

The Origin of the Loom—Looms in Ancient Art and Literature—Egyptian and Greek Looms—The Essential Part of the Loom—The Cross in the Warp—The Simplest Practical Loom—Demonstration of the Cross—Special Need for the Cross in Long Warps of many Threads—Preparation of the Warp—Ancient Warping—A Simple Method of Warping for Domestic Looms.