British costume during XIX centuries (civil and ecclesiastical)

Front matter

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BRITISH COSTUME DURING NINETEEN CENTURIES

Preface

Books upon costume are to a certain extent plentiful, but those long-suffering individuals who have occasion to search them frequently, or possess the wish to grasp and thoroughly comprehend the exact style 7 prevailing during a particular | period in, say, the Middle Ages, can fully testify to the complete confusion prevailing in the majority of works upon the subject. Thus,styles which were in vogue for only a short period are vaguely defined as fourteenth century, Plantagenet, or Edwardian, as the case may be, while the approximate time when any costume died out— which is just as important as its introduction— is practically never alluded to.

It was with a humble but earnest endeavour to rectify this condition of things, and to introduce some degree of order and method, whereby definite styles could be appropriated to definite periods, that I began a course of methodical research in the manuscript department of the British Museum to verify years of previous work, and the result

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Vill PREFACE will, I hope, be appreciated by those who are interested in the subject. ‘The method and general arrangement followed is similar to that carried out in the companion volume upon “ Arms and Armour” by my husband, which has received many encomiums for its definiteness and lucidity. For the first time a system of classifying the costume of the ladies according to the head-dress which prevailed has been attempted, and it is hoped with success. ‘There is undoubtedly a great revival of interest in the wearing apparel of our ancestors at the time of writing, possibly owing to the numerous Pageants which have been held during the past few years, and it should be hailed with satisfaction ; for if they have led to costumes being produced which are historically correct, much educational work will have been accomplished. ‘To the earnest student, however, there have been many occasions for regret when painful anachronisms have appeared upon the arena, but these have been growing less year by year.

With some notable exceptions the representation of historical costume upon the stage is still almost in its infancy, so far as the periods anterior to the Tudor are concerned, and this is most sincerely to be deplored, inasmuch as medizeval costume has a charm and grace of its own which is quite unknown to post-Reformation dress. By actual experience I have found upon more than one occasion that an audience pays much more critical and appreciative attention to a play which is costumed strictly in accordance with historical detail, and as such is duly advertised, than to one dressed in a pot-pourri of stage dresses, which are invariably a réchauffé of costumes authentic, conjectural, and mythical. The idea prevailing among stage costumiers that a dress

PREFACE 1x cannot be striking without multitudinous furbelows is doubtless responsible for many of the lamentable mistakes so frequently seen, and the manager of a theatre who insists upon rigid adherence to historical accuracy in preference to the “ effectiveness” at one time chiefly aimed at, richly deserves the warmest thanks of the community. In the illustrations of books, too, there is much to be done before satisfactory work is achieved, and this remark also applies specially to costumes ante-dating the Tudor period. Perhaps the most earnest workers in the realm of truth are the many artists who ransack every available authority in the sincere endeavour to produce pictures combining beauty with absolute truthfulness, though some are beguiled into representing both civil and military dress by the fantastic illustrations of certain fifteen century illuminators of manuscripts, who revelled in imagery and depicted impossibly fantastic costumes, which are eagerly followed by stained-glass window artists, wood-carvers, sculptors, and modern-day illuminators.

I take this opportunity of expressing my indebtedness to the custodians of the Manuscript Department of the British Museum and Printed Books Department; also to those at South Kensington Museum and the National Gallery; to the curators of the Public Libraries at Eastbourne, Whitby, Nottingham, St. Albans, Brighton, St. Heliers, &c. |

My thanks are also due to H. J. Toulmin, Esq., E. P. Debenham, Esq., W. M. Myddelton, Esq., to those ladies and gentlemen who have kindly acted as models for the coloured illustrations, and to my husband for kind revision of proofs. (MRS.) CHARLES H. ASHDOWN.

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CHAP.

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Contents

FIRST PART: CIVIL

THE BRITONS THE *SAXON PERIOD, c. 460 ro 1066

THE NORMAN PERIOD: WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR,

Chapter I The Britons

THE subject of British costume naturally commences with the garments worn by the primitive inhabitants of these Islands, but, as might be anticipated, the necessary particulars for describing the dress of the Ancient Britons are extremely meagre, and even when given are in many parts almost hopelessly obscure. Of definite descriptions anterior to the date of the first Roman invasion there are practically none extant, and even after Cesar’s two visits the references to such matters as dress and adornments for the person are scanty and unsatisfactory. We know that the constant intercourse between the Southern coast of Britain and the mainland naturally led to a higher degree of civilisation being existent along the southern littoral than in the Midland and Northern districts; and thus, while the inhabitants of Trent enjoyed the full benefit of that intercourse, the dwellers of Strath-Clyde were still plunged in the depth of barbarism. Arguing from analogy, _ we should expect the latter to have been clothed in what may be termed man’s primitive attire, namely, the skins of A the beasts struck down in the chase, or those of domestic animals slaughtered for food. This assumption is confirmed by Cesar, who states in his Commentaries, “that those within the country went clad in skins,” while the Southern Britons were clothed like the Gauls. This condition of things must have lasted for centuries, for even after the Roman occupation we read of the Northern tribes as being but little removed from savages. As we have the authority of Caesar and other ancient writers for asserting that the Southern Britons were similar in manners, customs, and dress to the Gauls, any contemporary knowledge of the latter would naturally apply to the former. Thus the Gaulish methods for spinning, weaving wool, dressing, and dyeing had been copied by the men of Trent, and, according to the evidence of Diodorus Siculus, Strabo, and Pliny, certain trade secrets in the art of dyeing had also been communicated. The parti-coloured cloth worn by the Gauls was also manufactured in Britain, and appears to have been very characteristic of that period. It was composed of strands of wool dyed in different colours, and afterwards woven in such a manner that the resulting fabric presented a chequered or parti-coloured appearance, and may have been the prototype of the Scottish plaid. Respecting the dress of Boadicea, who flourished more than a hundred years after the Cesarean invasions, we are informed by Dion Cassius that she wore “a tunic of several colours all in folds, and over it, fastened by a fibula or brooch, a robe of coarse stuff.” This tunic was evidently made of what may be termed the national cloth, and the — cloak of common fustian, which all nations emerging from barbarism appear to have the faculty of manufacturing.

THE BRITONS 3

THE DRUIDS

The Druidical priests were clad in white voluminous robes reaching to the feet, and consisting of two essential parts, the robe proper and the cloak.

Robe.—This garment was similar to a sleeveless dressinggown reaching to the feet, but with no collar. We have no knowledge of the material | of which it was made, but it was probably of wool, and of special manufacture. <A_ bas-relief found at Autun in France represents two Druids (Fig. 1), and from the many folds delineated in each of these robes they were evidently of a soft material.

‘Cloak.—F rom the illustration it will be gathered that this naa was peculiarly ample, inasmuch Fia. 1.—Druids from bas-relief found at Autun.

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‘as some parts reach to the ground. Of the form and dimensions of this garment no data are extant, but practical experience has discovered that if it be cut somewhat like a Roman toga it will give when. draped an appearance very similar to that shown in the figure. The Druid upon the right is crowned with an oak garland and bears a sceptre; while the one upon the left carries a sacred symbol, the crescent, in his hand. At important ceremonials the Arch-Druid wore a torque or breastplate of a peculiar shape (shown in Fig. 2). The broad lower portion rested upon the chest, and the two bosses reached on either side to the ears, while upon his head a tiara was worn with diverging rays. These ornaments were all of gold, and engraved. Respecting the minor priestly orders, the Bards or Singers were habited similarly to the Druids, but in cloth of a bolical of peace. The

Fia. 2.—Druidical torques, &c. Ovates, a class pro-

fessing erudition,

were in green, a colour signifying learning. The lowest

order of priests or novitiates wore garments of the three

colours combined, presumably spots of colour on a white ground,

CIVIL DRESS: THE MEN

The Tunic_—The men were habited in a loose-fitting sleeveless tunic, confined at the waist by a belt. Diodorus tells us the Belgic Gauls wore dyed tunics beflowered with all manner of colours, and possibly the Britons may have imitated them. The tunic partly covered the bracce, or trousers, an article of apparel by which all barbaric nations seem to have been distinguished from the Romans. They reached from the waist to the feet, and were either close-fitting or loose; if the latter, they were partly confined by bandages passed round the limb at wide intervals. By the use of the term “ bracce,” signifying spotted, we may infer that these garments were fashioned from the native cloth, the predominating colour in which was red.

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Fie. 3.—Saxon rustics.

. 603. ) No. 2. (Cott. MS. Claudius B iv.)

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Fic. 4.—The Saxon tunica.

No. 1. (Cott. MS. Claud. B iv.) No. 2. (Bod. MS. Junius xi.) No. 3. (Cott. MS. Claud. B iv.)

THE BRITONS 5

The Sagum was a cloak dyed blue or black, which had superseded the skins still worn by the inhabitants of the interior. The hair was long, and fell in curls down the back; the face was clean shaven, except for the moustache, which was apparently cultivated to its utmost extent, and occasionally reached to the chest. Probably no covering for the head was in use.

The dress of the women consisted of a long loose-fitting sleeveless garment, confined at the waist, over which was worn a cloak or skin, the head as a rule being left uncovered.

With respect to the inhabitants of the interior, we can only surmise that they were dressed in skins, and consequently no definite fashions prevailed.

A national characteristic appears to have been the staining of the skin with woad, which is referred to by many ancient writers. From some we should gather that this was a system of tattooing similar to that practised by the Maori, while others infer that the whole skin was ‘stained with the colour so as to give a bluish-green appearance. Both Herodotus and Isidorus concur in stating that the skin was punctured by needles and the colour afterwards rubbed in. Pliny asserts that this was done during infancy by the British wives and nurses. We may therefore safely assume that the Britons carried indelible designs upon their bodies, which were calculated to add to their ferocious aspect in war. The articles of personal adornment consisted of armlets, bracelets, rings, collars, and necklaces of twisted wire, made of gold, silver, and the commoner metals and alloys.

CHAPTER II THE SAXON PERIOD, c. 460 to 1066

Wirn the advent of this period we leave to a certain extent the region of conjecture, and enter within the bounds of certainty, inasmuch as the material for reconstructing the Saxon Period is of a much more tangible character than that afforded by the British. There are practically three authorities from which we derive information, namely, the Sagas, the contents of Saxon barrows, and the MSS. Unfortunately the Sagas deal as a rule with the heroic deeds of Scandinavian heroes, and although they furnish us with what may be termed minute details of military equipment, there are practically no references of any value to the civil or ecclesiastical garments of the men, or to the costume of the women. ‘The second source, the Saxon barrows, only affords us information concerning the gold, silver, and other ornaments, together with the military arms of our Saxon ancestors; and although this is valuable to a great extent, we have to rely finally for precise knowledge of dresses and decorations to the many priceless manuscripts which are preserved in the British Museum and elsewhere. The Saxons commenced their conquests during the fifth century, but it was not until the year 720 that the earliest MS. preserved to us saw the light ; there are consequently more than two centuries during which we have no reliable details. Spelman, in his 6

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* BBS, Fia. 5.—Saxon mantles.

No. 1. (Cott. MS. Claudius B iv.) No. 2. (Cott. MS. Claudius B iv.) No. 3. (Bod. MS, Junius xi.) No. 4. (Cott. MS. Claudius B iv.)

Fic. 6.—The Saxon mantle. (Cott. MS. Tiberius C vi.)

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“Councils,” refers to a meeting at the end of the eighth century, in which a speaker chides the Saxons for the manner in which they wore their dress, intimating that the nation had changed its style of clothing upon its conversion to Christianity. As a consequence, the description of the Saxon dress must be accepted as that which prevailed after the time of St. Augustine, and not to that worm before 597s

SAXON CIVIL COSTUME: THE MEN

The garment worn next to the skin, or the just-aucorps, appears to have been universal among all ranks, even to the humblest, who at times possessed no other clothing. For example, the Saxon rustic shown in Fig. 3, Pl., No. 1, taken from Harl. MS. 603, dating from the reign of Harold II., is thus habited, and a still earlier example, No. 2, possesses but one garment. Of course it may be claimed that these figures are dressed in tunics. It was always made of linen, the wearing of a woollen garment next the skin being enjoined at that period as a severe penance.

The Tunica. —This was of two kinds—the short, which was practically worn by all classes of people, and the long, which was generally considered as a mark of superior rank. The short tunica in the earlier period was simply provided with an opening for the passage of the head (Fig. 4, PL, No. 1), but in later examples it was open for a short distance from the neck, and laced up in front when adjusted, No. 2. The sleeve was cut with the garment, having one seam only, and a very marked peculiarity of Saxon sleeves, which may even be traced for nearly two centuries after the period, is the extraordinary rucking upon the forearm. This is explained by the fact that, during cold weather, the sleeves could be drawn over the hands to provide warmth. The hem reached to just below the knees, and subsequently became decorated with a worked border, which was carried up the two sides where the openings occurred, as in No. 8. Around the waist a girdle was worn, seldom shown in the engravings, inasmuch as the tunica was pulled up through it, and fell in folds over it, giving the strange appearance which is such a marked feature of the waist. When indulging in very violent exercise, such as sword-play, throwing the lance, &c., more of the tunica worked up through the girdle on the right side than on the left, thus giving a slanting appearance to the hem. This striking point was promptly copied by the ladies (Fig. 21, Pl.). The lavish ornamentation bestowed upon the garment in the later part of the period is indicated in No. 3. The tunica was not always cut up at the side. It is perfectly permissible to suppose that the smock-frock, or carter’s gown, of the present day, with its peculiar needlework, may be a direct descendant of the Saxon tunica.

The Mantle.—Probably the most distinctive feature of the Saxons of both sexes was the mantle, flowing in graceful folds, and in sweeping curves of beauty. It was not always adjusted after a stereotyped fashion, but much was left to individual taste; the mode of fastening, however, was either in the centre of the chest, or upon one or both shoulders. The shape of this mantle was that shown in Fig. 5, Pl, No. 1; although plain in the earlier years,

SAXON

Head-gear.—Banded Phrygian cap.

Cloak.—Of blue cloth embroidered.

Tunica.—Green cloth embroidered.

Stockings.—Red cloth cross-gartered yellow.

(Photographed direct from examples used in the Author’s lecture upon ** Medizeval Costumes and Head-dresses.”)

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~ ba Baad S aieeane it finally became decorated (Fig. 6, Pl.). An example in which it is shown fastened upon the chest is given in Fig. 7, Pl. where it is very voluminous ; upon both shoulders in Fig. 5, Pl., No. 2, and upon one shoulder in Fig. 9, Pl. Occasionally the mantle was made in a circular form, with a hole for the head not placed in the centre, as shown in Fg. 5, Pl., No. 1. Upon comparing Fig. 5, Pl., No. 4, which is of the eighth century, with No. 2, which dates from the tenth, it will be gleanedthat the ~

mantle eventually became Cai vA much smaller; but this must not be taken as universal, inasmuch as persons of distinction and elderly people frequently wore mantles of great length, sometimes reaching the ground, over the long tunicas il, which they also affected. 24.

The method of fastening the SS

mantle was generally by means F¢. 8.—Method of fastening cloak by of fibule or brooches, often of ee aes very elaborate workmanship. As a proof that the old method used by the Druids for fastening the mantle had not fallen into disuse, we give an illustration from the Harl. MS. 603 (Fig. 8), where the mantle is distinctly seen to be pulled up through a ring on the right shoulder (see also Fig. 9, Pl.). That the fastening was not always undone when it was removed is proved by an illustration in the above MS. representing the encounter between David and Goliath, in which David has thrown his mantle upon the ground still fastened with the brooch (Fig. 6, P1.).

The Stockings——All Scandinavian nations wore short trousers reaching to mid-thigh, and the stockings of thin cloth were frequently made sufficiently long to jom them; but the prevailing mode, and one which lasted for many years, was to wear short stockings reaching nearly to the knees, where they finished generally in the shape of the top part of a Hessian boot (Fig. 10, Pl.), but occasionally passed horizontally round the leg, and even at times downwards from the back. Where no stockings are seen it invariably signifies that the long variety were used, the upper part not being visible. The exception to this was the rustic, who is very rarely shown with any stockings at all.

The Cross-Gartering.—Like the Franks, Normans, and other Northern nations of Europe, the Saxons affected a style of cross-gartering which was often very elaborate. It consisted of strips of cloth of various colours, or, in the case of soldiers, strips of leather bound round the leg so as to form a pattern, and always terminating below the knee (Fig. 10, PLY, In the case of persons of rank an ornament is sometimes shown at the knee (Fig. 11, Pl.).

The Shoes.—The general form of : foot-gear was a low shoe, fastening up the front or the sides; occasionally © a boot is shown, as in Fig. 12. The shoes appear to be | universal, even the Saxon rustic being provided with them, although, as we have seen, he wore them without stockings.

Fic, 12.—Late Saxon boots.

Fic. 7.—Saxon mantle. Fia. 9.—The Saxon mantle, showing method of (Cott. MS. Claudius B iv.) fastening. (Cott. MS. Claudius B iv.)

The Cap.—As a general rule the Saxons went bareheaded, but what may be termed the national covering was a cap of the Phrygian shape, made of leather or skin, with the hair outside in the case of the lower classes; and of cloth, more or less decorated with embroidery, among the upper. ‘The same cap, strengthened with bands of steel, covered the head of the warrior. The pattern of this cap varied considerably, sometimes being high (Fig. 4, PL., No. 3), or low with a comb (Fig. 9, Pl.). A circular variety 1s shown upon a representation of King David. ‘The members of the Witan and other personages of distinction affected a sugar-loaf cap, and we also find Saxon soldiers with a helmet of this shape (Fig. 9, Pl.).

The Saxon men delighted in having long and flowing hair, in which they took a particular pride; only the very lowest classes had it cropped short. ‘lhe beard was worn long and flowing, and a remarkable feature was the bifid form, which is so strongly emphasised in illuminations (Figs. 13 and 14, Pls.). Although in many of these the beard and also the hair is rendered of a distinctly blue colour, it must not be imagined that a style prevailed for dyeing the hair, such a feature, if habitual, would certainly have been mentioned by contemporary writers.

THE WOMEN Tue Heap-rai Heap-press To 1066

A remarkable feature of the costume of Anglo-Saxon ladies was the astonishing persistence of one particular style of dress over so many centuries. The earliest pictorial representation does not vary to any marked extent from the latest ; practically the only alteration of any importance appears in the head-gear.

The Head-rail.—This distinctive covering in the earlier form consisted of a piece of material—silk, cloth, or linen according to the social status of the wearer—which was approximately 24 yards in length and 3 yard wide. Its method of adjustment was to place one end of the rail loosely on the left shoulder, pass it over the head down to the right shoulder, under the chin, and round the back of the neck, and over the right shoulder again ; the free end could either be left hanging loosely down in front, or the chest might be completely covered by taking one corner of the loose end and passing it over the left shoulder again (Fig. 15, Pl.). A variation Fic. 16.’the head. Of this mode is perceived in the latter part

rail. (Cott. MS. of the period whereby the neck is exposed.

Ce ee In this case the rail was made only half its original length; the centre is. placed upon the forehead and the two ends allowed to hang freely on either side (Fig. 15, Pl.). In order to keep the rail in position during gusty .weather, and also perhaps for ornamentation, a narrow circlet seems to have been worn at times over it. An example of this occurs in Cott. MS. Vespasian A viii. (Fig. 16). The rail was of various colours, but apparently never white.

The Hair.—Of the coiffure worn under the head-rail we have no illustration. The Bishop of Sherborne, who wrote in the eighth century, particularly mentions a woman having her twisted locks delicately curled by an iron; another is mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon poem of “ Judith”

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THE SAXON PERIOD, c. 460 Tro 1066 15 as having twisted locks; while from analogy with the continental nations, we may infer that they wore the hair in long plaits. Among the jewellery mentioned in wills of that period, golden head-bands and half circlets occur, and from this one may gather that, although the head was always covered at home and abroad, the hair was by no means neglected. The term “fair-haired Saxons” has led many astray when reproducing costume for female Saxon characters, and numerous examples have been seen upon the arenas of pageants of hair freely exposed. In the case of children this might be allowed, but certainly not with regard to adults. So rigorously is this rule en- ‘- forced in all illuminations, Fic. 17.—Saxon lady in head-rail after retiring to rest. (Cott. MS. Claud. B iv.)

that we have every right to suppose that it was a disgrace for a woman to appear in public with her head uncovered. So deeply sensitive was the Saxon woman with regard to this rule, that, as * may be seen in Fig. 17, from Cott. MS. Claudius B iv., they wore the rail even after they had retired to rest, and a similar example may be noticed in the interesting woodcut from the Saxon MS. of Cadmon (Fig. 18). There are examples, we may add, of women with their hair exposed, but they always represent questionable characters, such as public dancers, minstrels, &c. (Fig. 19).

The Kirtle.—Respecting this garment we have no illustrations given; it was an article of dress corresponding to a combined petticoat and bodice of the present day. It is quite possible, however, that this garment is intended to be shown in the _ representation of the Virgin Mary in Cott. MS. Vesp.

A. viii, dating from 966, being a grant of privileges made by King Edgar to Winchester. The gunna is seen looped up, and the kirtle, of a darker colour, appears underneath. It is quite open to argument, however, that these may be the gunna and tunica respectively.

Fia. 19.—Saxon dancing-girl and minstrels. Fia. 20.—Anglo-Saxons on a journey, (Cott. MS. Cleopatra C viii.) illustrating the side-saddle for ladies. (Cott. MS. Claudius B iv.)

Incidentally it may be mentioned that the ladies always rode side-saddle, as in the fashion shown in the accompanying sketch (Iig. 20) from Cott. MS. Claudius B iv.

Fic. 13.—The Saxon bifid beard. (Cott. MS. Claudius B iv.)

The Gunna.—The English term “gown” is a direct derivative from this Saxon word. The garment was fairly tight-fitting, but long and flowing round the feet. It was furnished with tight sleeves, which were very long and puckered upon the forearm. In the earlier centuries the gunna was plain, and only ornamented by a band of embroidery round the hem, but in the tenth and eleventh centuries the material itself was at times covered with a design, often very elaborate.

The Tunica.—This article of dress, which roughly corresponded with that worn by the men, was a very characteristic Saxon garment. The sleeves invariably reached to the elbows, and had large openings. The shape at the neck was probably like that of the man, being encircled with a piece of embroidery, the latter being carried down the front, where it joined another piece which passed round the hem. A girdle as a rule confined the waist. It will be noticed by reference to Fig. 21, Pl., adapted from Harl. MS. 2908, that the marked peculiarity of the lower hem of the man’s tunic, in working up on the right side, has been faithfully imitated in the dress. As this is the first example noted in this work of the imitation of features in the masculine dress by the ladies, we may say that it is of constant occurrence in all ages, and that we shall meet with many examples during the medieval and later periods. It is the fashion, which has almost become stereotyped at the present day, to complain of the ladies copying the dress of the men; but surely we may argue, that what has always been we should expect to prevail now, and there is no guarantee for its discontinuance in the future. After all, it is a compliment, for imitation is the sincerest form of flattery. B