A manual of botany : including the structure, classification, properties, uses, and functions of plants

Front matter

A MANUAL OF BOTANY

-

A MANUAL

Preface

TO

THE FOURTH EDITION.

The author much regrets the inconvenience occasioned by the unexpected delay which has taken place in the issue of the present edition. That delay has, however, arisen from causes which he could not foresee, and over which he had no control.

In the Preface to the First Edition of this work the author fully explained the objects he had in view in its preparation, and the principal sources from whence he had derived the materials necessary for its compilation. That such a work was needed is sufficiently proved by the sale of three very large editions ; and in issuing the present edition, the author cannot but express the great gratification he feels at the satisfactory results which have attended his labours ; and he also takes this opportunity of returning his sincere thanks to the many kind friends and correspondents for the assistance they have rendered him by the communication of many valuable facts and suggestions.

The very great advances made within the last few years in the science of Botany on the Continent of Europe, more especially in Germany, have necessitated many important alterations and additions in the text of the present edition, and numerous new woodcuts ; so that, while the whole work has been very carefully revised throughout, in some respects — as in the subjects of elementary structure, reproductive organs of Acotyledons, and in the physiology of plants — it may be almost regarded as a new work. In these portions the author has especially to express his great obligations to Professor Lawson,

Vlll

Preface To Tiie Fourth Edition

of Oxford, for valuable assistance rendered in tlie subject of Histology; to Mr. J. W. Groves, Demonstrator of Physiology in King’s College, London, for, in a great degree, revising the Third Book on Physiology ; and to his pupil, Mr. J. Mason Vann, of King’s College, for nearly writing afresh the section on the Reproductive Organs of T hallophytes, and for other assistance in reference to Acotyledonous Plants. In all these portions the great work of Sachs, * A Text Book of Botany,’ translated by Bennett and Dyer, has been constantly referred to, and should be studied by all who desire to become more fully acquainted with the progress of science in these particulars, than is possible in this volume, consistent with the design of the author.

In the part which treats of the properties and uses of plants very many additions and alterations have been also rendered necessary by the progress of science. In this portion constant reference has been made to Fliickiger and Hanbury’s ‘ Pharmacographia,’ and to Bentley and Trimen’s ‘ Medicinal Plants,’ both of which works have been published since the third edition of this Manual. The latter work contains full botanical descriptions with original coloured figures of the principal plants employed in medicine, and an account of the characters, properties, and uses of their parts and products of medicinal value ; and is especially intended to serve as an illustrated botanical guide to the ‘British Pharmacopoeia’ the ‘Pharmacopoeia of India,’ and the ‘ Pharmacopoeia of the United States of America.’ For figures, descriptions, and full particulars of these plants, all of which are briefly noticed in this Manual in the part treating of Systematic Botany, the author begs leave therefore to refer those of his readers who are specially interested in the official and other more important medicinal plants.

In this part, although several minor changes have been made in the arrangement and characters of the natural orders, it lias not been thought advisable to depart in any essential particulars from the order followed in previous editions. The arrangement here adopted, except in unimportant particulars, is that used generally in our Floras, and that which is sanctioned by our examining bodies. The present, so far as the classification of plants is concerned, may be regarded as a transitional period in this country ; and important, therefore, as a knowledge of other arrangements maybe to advanced students, they are scarcely

Preface To The Fourth Edition

IX adapted for such a Manual as the present. Such-students should especially refer to the great work, now in course of publication, Bentham and Hooker’s ‘Genera Plantarum.’

The present work having been thus carefully revised and in part rewritten, and supplemented by very carefully prepared and copious indexes, the author confidently believes that it will, even better than the preceding editions, serve as a convenient, intelligible, and faithful as well as comprehensive manual for students ; and also be very useful as a work of reference for those engaged in commercial pursuits who, having constantly to make use of substances derived from the Vegetable Kingdom, require accurate and condensed information on the Properties and Uses of Plants.

London : February, 1882.

PREFACE

TO

THE FIRST EDITION.

The principal design of tlie author in the preparation of the present volume was, to furnish a comprehensive, and at the same time a practical, guide to the Properties and Uses of Plants, a part of Botany which, in the majority of manuals, is but very briefer alluded to. He hopes that in this respect the present manual may serve as an introduction to works devoted particularly to Materia Medica and Economic Botany, and thus form a text-book of especial value to medical and pharmaceutical students ; as well as a work of reference generally, for those engaged in commercial pursuits who have daily to make use of substances derived from the Vegetable Kingdom.

Another prominent motive of the author was, to furnish the pupils attending his lectures with a class-book, in which the subjects treated of should be arranged, as far as possible, in the same order as followed by him in the lectures themselves. It may be noticed that this order differs in several respects from that commonly followed, but long experience as a teacher has convinced him that it is the most desirable one for the student. Great pains have been taken in all departments to bring the different subjects treated of down to the present state of science ; and much care has been exercised in condensing the verynumerous details bearing upon each department, and in arranging them for systematic study.

The author makes no claims for this work to be regarded as a complete treatise on the different departments of Botany ; it is only intended as a guide to larger and more comprehensive

Preface To The First Edition

XI works ; but he trusts, at the same time, that it will be found to contain everything which the student of Botany really requires, whether he is pursuing it as a branch of professional or general education, or for pleasure and recreation.

The vast number of facts, observations, and terms necessarily treated of, in the departments of Structural, Morphological, and Systematic Botany, have compelled the author to give but a brief account of the Physiology of Plants ; he hopes, however, that even here, all the more important subjects bearing upon the education of the medical practitioner and pharmaceutist will be found sufficiently comprehensive. To those who require a more complete knowledge of this department, he would refer them to the Second Part of Balfour’s ‘ Class-Book of Botany,’ in which valuable work full details upon Physiological Botany will be found.

The author had a great desire, also, to include in the present volume an Appendix upon Descriptive Botany, and a Glossary of Botanical Terms ; but the Manual having already exceeded the limits desired, he is unable to do so. The Index itself will, however, serve as a glossary by referring to the pages in which the different terms are defined and explained ; and with regard to Descriptive Botany, the author would especially recommend every reader of this work to obtain a small but very valuable work on that subject which has been recently published by Dr. Lindley.

In compiling this volume the author has been necessarily compelled to refer to many works and original memoirs on botanical science, and he hopes that in all cases he has given full credit to the different authors for the assistance they have afforded him. If he has omitted to do so in any instance, it has arisen from inadvertence and not from design. To the valuable works of Mohl, Jussieu, Schleiden, Mulder, Hofmeister, Asa Gray, and Schacht, among foreign botanists ; and to those of Lindley, Balfour, Henfrey, Hooker, Berkeley, Pereira, and Boyle, among British botanists, he begs to express his obligations. To his friend, Mr. Daniel Hanbury, he is also indebted for some valuable information communicated during the progress of the work. To Lindley ’s ‘ Vegetable Kingdom,’ Pereira’s ‘Materia Medica,’ and to the many valuable articles upon the Anatomy of Plants in Griffith and Henfrey’s ‘ Micrographic Dictionary,’ by the lamented Henfrey, the author is more especially indebted. The

Xll

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.

last three works will always bear ample testimony to the great research and abilities of their respective authors.

The author has further to express his obligations to his spirited publisher, for the numerous woodcuts which he has liberally allowed him, and to Mr. Bagg for the great skill he has shown in their execution. A large number of these woodcuts have been taken from Maout’s ‘ Atlas e'lementaire de Botanique,’ several from Jussieu’s ‘ Cours elementaire de Botanique ; ’ others have been derived from the works of Schleiden, Mohl, Hofmeister, Lindley, Henfrey, Balfour, &c. ; and many are from original sources. By the judicious use of these woodcuts in the text of the volume, it is believed that the value of the work as a class-book of botanical science has been materially increased.

London : May 1, 1861.

PAGE

Introductory Remarks ........ 1

Departments of Botany . 1

Distinctions between Animals, Plants, and Minerals . . 2

Book I. Organography ; Or Structural And Morphological

BOTANY.

General Morphology of the Plant . . . 6

Cryptogamous Plants 9

Phanerogamous Plants . . . . . . . ..11

1. Organs of Nutrition or Vegetation ..... 13 b. The Stem or Caulome . . . . . . .13

c. The Leaf or Phyliome . . . . . . . 15

2. Organs of Reproduction . . . . . . .15

a. The Flower Stalk or Peduncle 15 c. The Fruit and Seed ........ 20

Elementary Structure of Plants, or Vegetable Histology. 21 of the cell as an individual . . . 21

1. General Characters ; and Contents of Cells . . . .21

2. The Protoplasm . . . . . . . .23

3. The Nucleus or Cytoblast . . . . . . . 25

Chlorophyll and Chlorophyll Granules . . . . . 26

a . Chlorophyll . . . . . . . .26

b. Chlorophyll Granules ....... 26

XIV

Contents

Development of Starch .......

Composition and Chemical Characteristics of Starch Raphides ..........

Aleurone Grains, Crystalloids, and Globoids

Section 3. THE LEAF OR PHYLLOME . . . . 134

1. General Description and Parts of the Leaf . . - .134

Duration and Fall of the Leaf 135

Parrs of the Leaf . . . . . . . .135

2. The Internal Structure of Leaves . . . . . . 137 a. Fibro-vascular System 137

b. Parenchyma or Mesophyll . . . . .138

2. Submersed Leaves . 139

3. Insertion and Arrangement of Leaves . . . . .140

2. Arrangement of Leaves on the Stem or Phyllotaxy . . 142

Alternate Leaves 144

CONTENTS.

XY11

PAGE

Opposite and Whorl ed Leaves 147

Phyllotaxis in different Natural Orders, &c. . . . 148

3. Arrangement of the Leaves in the Bud, or Vernation . 148

Venation 151

1. Varieties of Beticulated or Netted Venation . . . 153

A. Feather-veined or Pinnately- veined . . .154

11. Badiated or Palmately-veined . . . . 154

2. Varieties of Parallel Venation . . . . .155

Venation of the Leaves of Acotyledonous Plants . . 155

4. General Outline . . . . . . . 163

2. Compound Leaves . . . . . . . 168

1. Pinnately-veined Compound Leaves . . .168

2. Palmately-veined Compound Leaves . . . 170

5. Petiole or Leaf-stalk 172

Forms of the Petiole . . . . . . ..175

Kinds of Stipules . . . . . . . . 177

7. Anomalous Forms of Leaves ....... 179

Spines of Leaves . . . . . . . . . 179

Tendrils of Leaves 180

Phyllodes or Phyllodia . . . . . . . . 180

Ascidia or Pitchers . . . . . . . .182

8. General View of the Leaves in the three great Classes of Plants 1 S3

1. Leaves of Dicotyledonous Plants ..... 183

2. Leaves of Monocotyledonous Plants . . . . . 183

3. Leaves of Acotyledonous Plants . . . . .184

CHAPTER 4.

Organs of Reproduction . . . . 184

INFLORESCENCE OR ANTHOTAXIS . . .184

1. The Bract 185

Arrangement and Duration of Bracts 187

Varieties of Bracts . . . . . . . . . 187

2. The Peduncle or Flower-stalk . . . . . .190

Kinds of Peduncle . . . . . . . . . 190

Forms of Peduncle . . . . . . . .191

Duration 192

3. Kinds of Inflorescence ........ 193

1. Indefinite, Indeterminate, or Axillary Inflorescence . . 194

a

PAGE

1. Kinds of Indefinite or Indeterminate Inflorescence

•with an Elongated Primary Axis . . ..195 b. The Amentum or Catkin ...... 196 d. The Locusta or Spikelet 196

e. The Cone 197

f. The Strobilus or Strobile 197

g. The Raceme 198

h. The Corymb 198 k. The Thyrsus or Thyrse 200

2. Kinds of Indefinite or Indeterminate Inflorescence

with a Shortened or Dilated Primary Axis . . 200

a. The Capitulum, Head, or Anthodium . . 200

b. The Umbel . . . .201

2. Definite, Determinate, or Terminal Inflorescence. . . . 202

Kinds of Definite or Determinate Inflorescence . . 203

a. The Cyme 203

b. Helicoid or Scorpioid Cyme .... 206

c. The Fascicle or Contracted Cyme . . . . 209

d. The Glomerule ....... 209

e. The Verticillaster 209

3. Mixed Inflorescence . . . . . . .210

OF THE PARTS OF THE FLOWER ; AND TnEIR ARRANGEMENT

IN THE FLOWER-BUD 211

1. Parts of the Flower . . . . . . . .211

2. ^Estivation or Prsefloration 211

1. Varieties of Circular /Estivation ..... 212

2. Varieties of Imbricated or Spiral ^Estivation . . . 213

Section 3.

the florIl envelopes . . . .215

1. The Calyx 215

1. Polysepalous or Dialysepalous Catyx . . . .218

2. Monosepalous or G-amosepalous Calyx . ... 218

Appendages of the Calyx . . . . . • • .221

Duration of the Calyx ....•••• 222

2. The Corolla . 223

1. Polypetalous or Dialypotalous Corolla . . • • 224

A. Regular Polypetalous Corollas ..... 225

1. Cruciform or Cruciate . . • • • • 22,5

2. Caryophyllaceous ....... 225

B. Irregular Polypetalous Corollas ..... 225

The Papilionaceous ....... 226

2. Monopetalous or Gamopetalous Corollas .... 226

CONTENTS.

XIX

PAGE

A. Regular Monopetalous Corollas ....

. 226

•

. 226

2. Campauulate or Bell-shaped

. 226

3. Infundibuliform or Funnel-shaped

•

. 226

4. Hypocrateriform or Salver-shaped

. 227

5. Rotate or Wheel-shaped ....

•

. 227

6. Urceolate or Urn-shaped ....

. 227

B. Irregular Monopetalous Corollas

•

1. Labiate, Bilabiate, or Lipped

. 227

2. Personate or Masked ....

.

. 228

3. Ligulato or Strap-shaped ....

. 228

3. Appendages of the Corolla .....

•

. 230

Duration of the Corolla

. 233

Section 4. THE ESSENTIAL ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION

. 233

The Andrcecium

. 234

1. The Filament .......

. 234

. 234

Length, Colour, and Direction

. 235

Duration ........

. 237

2. The Anther .......

. 237

Its Parts ........

. 237

Its Development and Structure

. 238

Attachment of the Filament to the Anther

. 240

Connective .......

. 241

Form of the Anther-lobes and Anther

. 242

Colour of the Anther .....

. 243

Dehiscence of the Anther ....

. 243

1. Longitudinal or Sutural

. 244

2. Transverse

. 244

3. Porous or Apical ....

. 244

4. Valvular or Opercular ....

. 245

The Stamens generally, or the Andrcecium

. 245

1. Number .

. 245

2. Insertion or Position ....

. 246

3. Union or Cohesion .....

. 247

4 Relative Length .....

. 249

The Pollen ........

. 250

Formation of Pollen .....

. 250

Structure of the Pollen .

. 253

1. Wall or Coats of the Pollen-cell

. 253

2. Contents of the Pollen-cells, or Fovilla .

3. Form and Size of the Pollen-cell

. 255

4. Dehiscence of the Pollen

. 255

The Disk

. 257

The Gyncecium or Pistil ......

. 258

The Carpel ........

Nature of the Carpel

. 260

Structure of the Carpel

a 2

. 261

XX

CONTENTS.

PAGE

The Cfynoecium 265

1. Apocarpous Pistil 266

2. Syncarpous Pistil 267

Compound Ovary 268

1. The Ovary 271

Plaeentation ........ 274

1. Kinds of Placentation 274

2. Origin of the Placenta ..... 276

2. The Style 279

Form and Surface 281

8. The Stigma 282

4. The Thalamus, Receptacle, or Torus 285

Section 5

the fruit 287

Nature of the Fruit . 287

Changes produced in the Ovary in the Course of its Development 288

General Characters of the Fruit 290

Pericarp 290

Composition of the Pericarp 291

Dehiscence 293

1. Valvular Dehiscence 294

A. Septicidal Dehiscence 295

B. Loculicidal Dehiscence 296

C. Septifragal Dehiscence 297

2. Transverse or Circumscissile Dehiscence . . . 299

3. Porous Dehiscence 300

1. Fruits formed by a Single Flower 302

a. Simple Fruits ......... 302 b. Apocarpous Fruits 304

2. The Achaenium or Acliene 305 c. Syncarpous Fruits 306

1. Superior Syncarpous Fruits . . . . . 307

a. With a Dry Indeliiscent Pericarp . . . 307

1. The Caryopsis 307

3. The Carcerule ....... 307

4. The Amphisarca 308

b. With a Dry Dehiscent Pericarp . . . . 308

1. The Capsule 308

3. The Silicula 309

CONTENTS.

XXI

TAGE c. With a Fleshy Indehiscent Pericarp . . . 309

1. The Hesperidium .... 309

3. The Nuculanium 310

2. Inferior Syncarpous Fruits 310

a. With a Dry Indehiscent Pericarp . . .310

1. The Cremocarp . . . . . . 310

3. The Gians or Nut . . . . . . 311

b. With a Dry Dehiscent Pericarp . . . .311 c. With a Fleshy Indehiscent Pericarp . . .311

1. The Bacca or Berry . . . . . 311

2. ThePepo 312

4. The Balausta ...... 313

2. Fruits formed by the Combination of Several Flowers . . 313

1. The Cone 314

3. The Strobilus or Strobile ..... 315

4. The Sorosis 315

5. The Syconus 316

Section 6. THE OVULE AND SEED

Number and Position of the Ovules .....

Development and Structure of the Ovule ....

Relation of the Hilum, Chalaza, and Myeropyle to each

Nature and General Characters of the Seed as compared with the Ovule .........

Form of the Seed ........

Structure of the Seed ........

1 The Integuments .......

a. Testa, Episperm, or Outer Integument . . .

Colour, Texture, and Surface of the Testa

b. Tegmen, Endopleura, or Internal Membrane The Arillus .......

The Caruncules or Strophioles . . . .

2. The Nucleus or Kernel

a. Albumen, Endosperm, or Perisperm . . .

b. The Embryo .......

Development of the Embryo . . . .

a. The Monocotyledonous Embryo .

b. The Dicotyledonous Embryo . . . .

Relation of the Embryo to the ether Parts of

the Seed, and to the Fruit ....

325 325

326 326 328

XXII

CONTENTS.

Section 7

GENERAL MORPHOLOGY, OR THE THEORETICAL STRUCTURE PAGE OF THE FLOWER 340

Section 8. SYMMETRY OF THE FLOWER . . . 345

1. The Changes due to Union or Adhesion of Parts . . . 348

a. Coalescence 348

b. Adnation or Adhesion 348

2. Addition or Multiplication of Parts 348

a. Augmentation ........ 348

b. Chorisis or Deduplication • 349

3. Suppression or Abortion 352

a. Suppression or Abortion of one or more Whorls . 352

h. Suppression of one or more Organs of a Whorl . . 352

4. Irregularity . . . 354

a. Unequal Growth, and Unequal Degree of Union of

the Members of a Whorl 354

b. Abnormal Development of the Thalamus or Axis of

the Plower 354

CHAPTER 5.

Reproductive Organs of Cryptogamous, Flowerless, or

Acotyle'donous Plants .... 355 Section 1.

reproductive organs of cormophytes . . . 356

1. Filices or Ferns 356

2. Equisetacese or Horsetails 359

3. Marsileaceae or Pepperworts ....... 360

4. Lycopodiaceae or Club-mosses 362

5. Musci or Mosses 363

6. Ilepaticacene or Liverworts 366 reproductive organs of thallopiiytes . . . 369

1. Fungi or Mushrooms ........ 369

3. Basidiomycetes . . . . • • • . . 373

2. Liehenes or Lichens 378

3. Characese or Charas 380

4. Algae or Seaweeds ......... 382

Spirogyra . . . 383

CONTENTS,

PACK