Outlines of comparative physiology : touching the structure and development of the races of animals, living and extinct for the use of schools and colleges

Front matter

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WISH

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Preface

initials, and both are enclosed in brackets, so that the reader may readily distinguish between MM. Agassiz and Gould’s text, and the additions made thereto.

The number and excellence of the wood-cuts form an important feature in this edition. With the exception of those belonging to the chapters on Embryology, and the Metamorphoses of Animals, they are nearly all additional, by which the original number is more than doubled : the American edition having only 170 wood-cuts, whilst the present contains 390. The beautiful drawings illustrative of human Osteology were engraved by Branston for the valuable Manual on the Bones by John F. South, Esq. ; those illustrating the chapters on Circulation, Respiration, Secretion, and the Development of the Chick, are chiefly from Wagner’s “ leones Physiologic^, ” and were engraved for the English translation of that author’s Elements of Physiology ; the other figures are selected from various sources, references to which are given in the Table of illustrations.

It has been the study of the Authors and of the Editor to exclude as much as possible a technical phraseology from the following pages ; but as the use of scientific terms could not altogether be dispensed with, the Editor has given an interpretation of them in a copious Glossarial Index.

Cheltenham, October, 1851.

T. W.

PREFACE.

The design of this work is to furnish an epitome of the leading principles of the science of Zoology, according to the present state of knowledge, so illustrated as to be intelligible to the young student. No similar treatise exists in this country, and indeed some of the topics have not been touched upon in the language, except in a strictly technical form, and in scattered articles. On this account, some of the chapters, such as those on Embryology and Metamorphosis, may at first seem too abstruse for the beginner. But so essential have these subjects now become to a correct interpretation of philosophical zoology, that the study of them will hereafter be indispensable. They furnish a key to many phenomena which have heretofore been locked in mystery.

The illustrations have been drawn from the best authorities ; some of them are merely hypothetical outlines, which convey a more definite idea than if drawn from nature ; others have been left imperfect, except as to the parts especially in question ; a large proportion of them, however, are complete and original. Popular names have been employed as far as possible, and Definitions of those least likely to be understood, will be found in the Glossary.

The principles of Zoology developed by Professor Agassiz in his published works have been generally adopted in this, and the results of many new researches have been added.

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PREFACE.

The Authors gratefully acknowledge the aid they have received in preparing the illustrations and working out the details from Mr. E. Desor, for many years an associate of Professor Agassiz ; from Count Pourtales and E. C. Cabot, Esq.; and also from Professor Asa Gray, by valuable suggestions in the revision of the letter-press.

The present volume is devoted to Comparative Physiology as the basis of classification ; the second will comprise Systematic Zoology, in which the principles of classification will be applied, and the principal groups of animals briefly characterised.

Should our aim be attained, this work will produce more enlarged ideas of man’s relations to Nature, and more exalted conceptions of the plan of Creation and its Great Author.

Boston, June 1, 1848.

TABLE OF CONTENTS..

Page

xix

SECTION I. Of the Nervous System and General Sensation . . . .28

Structure of the primary Fibres of Nerves, 29 — Termination of the primary Fibres, 34 — The Cerebro-spinal system of Man —

The Cerebrum, 40 — The Cerebellum, 41 — The Optic Lobes, 42 —

The Spinal Cord, 42 — Nervous system of Fishes, 44 — Amphibia,

45 — Scaly Reptiles, 45 — Birds, 45 — Mammalia, 46 — Cerebral Nerves, 49 — Nervous system of Articulata, 54 — Conchifera, 55 — Gasteropoda, 55 — Cephalopoda, 56 — Radiata, 57.

SECTION II. Of the Special Senses 58

1. Of Sight, 58 — The Eye, 58 — Dioptrics of the Human Eye, 60 — 2. Of Hearing, 70 — Comparative Anatomy of the Organ of Hearing, 70 — 80 — 3. Of Smell, 80 — The Nose, 80 — 4 Of Taste,

81 — 5. Of Touch, 82 — 6. The Voice, 83.

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Table Of Contents

Page

CHAPTER FIFTH. Of Motion 91

SECTION I.

Apparatus of Motion 91

Voluntary and Involuntary Muscles, 92 — Microscopic Anatomy of Muscular Fibre, 90 — 94 — Ciliary Motions, 95 — Skeleton of Polyps, 100 — Echinidse, 101 — Astejriadae, 102 — Crinoideae, 103 — Mollusca, 104 — Articulata, 105 — Vertebrata, 106.

SECTION II.

Organs of Locomotion 109

Skeleton of Man, 111 — Composition of the Bones in Fishes, 113 — Reptiles, 113 — Birds, 113 — Mammals, 113 — Analysis of Bones,

114 — Microscopic Structure of Bones, 115 — The Head, 116 —

The Orbits, 123 — The Trunk, 126 — The Cervical Vertebrae, 127 — The Dorsal Vertebrae, 129 — The Lumbar Vertebrae, 130 —

The Sacrum, 131 — The Coccyx, 131 — The Vertebrae, 131 — Comparative Table of the number of the Vertebrae, 134 —

The Thorax, 135— The Pelvic Arch, 136 — The Thigh, 138 —

The Leg, 139 — The Foot, 139 — The Tarsus, 140 — The Metatarsus, 140 — Toes, 140 — The Scapular arch, 141 — The Scapula*

142 — The Clavicle, 143 — The Humerus, 143 — The Hand, 146 — The Carpus, 146 — The Metacarpus, 146 — The Phalanges,

147 — 1. Plan of the Organs of Locomotion in the Vertebrata,

148 — 2. Of Standing, and the Modes of Progression, 152 — Walking, 154 — Running, 155 — Leaping, 155 — Climbing, 155 — Flight, 156 — Swimming, 157.

CHAPTER SIXTH. Nutrition 159

SECTION I.

Of Digestion 160

The Polypifera, 160 — The Infusoria, 161 — The Acalephns, 162 — The Echinoderms, 163 — The Bryozooan Polypifera, 165 — The Tunicated Mollusca, 166 — The Coucliifera, 166 — The Gasteropoda, 167— The Cephalopoda, 171 — The Annelida, 172 — The Crustacea, 173 — The Arachnida, 174 — Insects, 174 — The Vertebrata, 178 — Organs of Mastication, 185 — Insalivation, 191 — Prehension, 193.

■TABLE OF CONTENTS.

IX

CHAPTER SEVENTH. Page

Blood globules in Man, 194 — Mammalia, 196— Birds, Reptiles, and Fishes, 197, 198 — Blood vessels, 199 — Heart, 200 — Circulation of the Blood in Mammals and Birds, 202 — Reptiles, 203 — Fishes, 204 — Crustacea, Mollusca, and Insecta, 205 — Capillary Vessels, 207 — Circulation of the Blood in the Web of the Frog’s foot, 208 — 212 — Circulation in the Lungs of the Triton, 213.

Chapter Eighth

The Echinoderms, 27 — The Tunicata, 218 — The Conchifera, 219 — The Gasteropoda, 219 — The Pteropoda, 220 — The Cephalopoda, 220 — The Crustacea, 220 — The Annelida, 220— Fishes,

221 — Insects, 223 — Air-breathing Vertehrata, 225 — Development of the Lungs, 226 — 231 — Respiration in Gases other than Atmospheric Air, 234.

CHAPTER NINTH. Of the Secretions 241

Endosmose and Exosmose, 243 — Structure of Glands, 246 — Elementary parts of Glands, 263 — Origin of Glands, 265 — Distribution of the Vessels in Glands, 269.

Chapter Tenth. Section I

Form of the Egg, 272 — Formation of the Egg, 273.

SECTION II.

Development of Fishes, 280 — 289 — Development of the Chick,

290 — Structure of the Egg as just laid, 290 — Detachment of the Ovum from the Ovary, and completion of its formation in the Oviduct, 292 — Earliest Period in the Development of the Chick, from the first appearance of the Embryo to the first traces of Circulation, 295 — Second Period of the Development of the Chick, to the Evolution of the Second Circulation, 308 — Third Period in the history of the Development of the Incubated Egg : from the commencement of the Circulation in the Allantois to the Exclusion of the Embryo, 324 — Birth of the Chick, 333 — Physical and Chemical changes in the Egg during Incubation, 334.

Zoological Importance of Embryology .... 336

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TABLE OE CONTEXTS.