Among the Turks

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Preface

It is the privilege and solace of age to go back upon the past and recount what has been, as the future closes up and little remains to be achieved or attempted.

The writer of the following pages has availed himself of this privilege in giving so large a place to narratives of personal x experience.

No one can live thirty -five years in so ■ strange a country as the Turkish empire is, and come into contact with its government, - institutions, religions, peoples, and industries

t without having many experiences which illustrate the peculiarities of the land. These personal narratives are of interest to the reader only so far as they are thus illus- ;5 trative. It must not be supposed that they

IV

PREFACE.

are intended to indicate the ordinary course of duty. They are selected out of many years of a quiet life. They are the aluminium extracted from a large mass of common clay. No other one has had so long a residence in Turkey without a more varied experience — but also without the time to record it. It is life coming in contact with life, it is new forces coming into contact with the old, that bring out the real nature of existing things and enable us to judge of them.

The origin, character, growth, and extent of the Ottoman empire are briefly delineated. The social life, educational institutions, laws, religion, evangelistic efforts, reforms, military character, and many other topics, are referred to or illustrated incidentally. The prescribed size and design of the book allowed these subjects to be merely sketched, not treated of in full.

Chapter I

Origin and Extent of the Turkish Empire — Institutions of the Empire the Cause of its steady Growth — Standing Army — Uniforms — Bashi-bozooks — Village Governments Simple and Democratic — Laws of War — Preservation — • Blade of Grass that doesn’t Grow — Captives — Property — Standing Army then a new Institution — Janizaries — Fall of Nice — Alladin the true Founder of the Empire — Seljukian Turks and Byzantine Greeks — Demoralization and Poverty 13

Chapter II

Growth of the Empire gradual and steady — Brusa, 1326 — Lodgment in Europe, 1357; Constantinople, 1453 — Influence of the Fall of Constantinople upon the East— Christianity on the Defensive — Legal Position of Christianity — Freedom from Military Service — Growth of Population — Decrease of Moslem Population by Military Service — Female Infanticide — Fatalism — War — Famine — Epidemics — Position of the Clergy — Benefits accruing — “Capitulations”— The West 20

Chapter III

State of the Turkish Empire— Navy and Army — Evangelistic Movement — Armenian Teacher — Evangelical Union and

VI

CONTENTS.

its Secretary — Concealment of Papers — Banishment — Second Teacher — Mr. Mesrobe Taliatine — Seizure by Order of the Russian Ambassador— M. de Boutineff— Banishment to Siberia — Escape — Becomes Editor — The Dying Sailor 28

Chapter IV

Accession of Abdul Medjid — European Interference in the Eastern Question — Hatti Scheriff of Gul Han£ — True Value of this Imperial Rescript — Reforms already Commenced— Naval School — Medical School — Military Academy — Defects— Naval Arsenal — Magnificent Machine-Shop — Manufactories— Mr. Hague — Total Failure— Russia and Turkey 46

Chapter V

Bebek Seminary — Patriarch’s Efforts to shut it up — Private Warning — Three Vacations — Fierce Contest between Bankers and Artisans — Advanced Position of the People — Progress— Confirmed Position of the Seminary — Jesuit College at Bebek — Jesuit Missions — Armenian Patriarch Avedick — Greek Patriarch Cyril Leucaris — Catholic Missions Compelled to Advocate Toleration 61

Chapter VI

Visit to the Sultan’s College in the Old Seraglio — Singular Reception — Martyrdom of Carabet — Course of Sir Stratford Canning — Declaration of the Grand Vizir— Of the Sultan— Conversion of Moslems — Particular Cases — Scene at Brusa — Examination of Mr. and Mrs. Freeman — Treachery of Sir Henry Bulwer — Course of the English Government inexplicable as to Religious Freedom in Turkey. . . . 77

CHAPTER VII. Removal to larger Premises— Cheliby Yorgaki and Wife

The old Forms of Oriental Life — The Breadseller and To-

CONTENTS.

Vll bacconist — Joannes and Ibrahim — Grand Vizir and Banker— Farewell Blessing and Counsel — Bribery — Bowstring and Safety 95

Chapter VIII

Second Night — Dethronement of Selim III — Dethronement of Mustapha — Cheliby Yorgaki and the Kislar Aghassi — Selim Murdered — Mahmud Concealed, Found, Enthroned — Escape of Yorgaki to Halki — Apprehended in the Night — Yorgaki and the Spoils — Execution of the Kislar Aghassi — Rejection of Gifts — Sent away as a Fool — Joy in Halki. 106

Chapter IX

Third Night — The Greek Revolution — Halet Effendi and the Janizaries— Their three Visits — Communion for Death— Halet Effendi and the Jewish Banker — Persecution — Death by the Bowstring — Confiscation — Firman — College Site — Halet Effendi’ s Fate — Janizaries Destroyed — Yorgaki’ s beautiful Daughter — Affiance — Wedding Festival —Elopement — Desolation — Conflagration — Halet Effendi — Advance in Civilization 115

Chapter X

Contest for Religious Freedom — Civil and Spiritual Power of the Patriarch — Anathema and its Results — “ Muggerdich and his Bed ” — Second escape of the Archives — Persecution at Adabazar — A Mob of Men quelled by one of Moslem Women — Visit to Adabazar and Deliverance from the Mob by Turks — Hassan’s Hospitality— Refusal of Reward — Second Visit to Adabazar — The Governor’s Conduct, and Consequences to Him — Third Visit — Reception — Growth of a true Christian Civilization — Origin of the Adabazar Movement — Stephan Erginziatsi 131

CONTENTS.

viii

Chapter XI

Tour into Southern Macedonia — Cavala — Mt. Athos — Monachism — Salonica — Fugitive Horse Captured by Turkish Woman — Assault of Khan — Retreat — Yeneji — Penlipd — Gaucherie — The Bey’s Dinner — The Mountains — Nuri Bey and Guard — Brigands — Trojeden — Government Oppressions— Greek Church — Mine and its Prospects — Nuri’s Caution — Durzee Bey — Protestant Worship — Temperance — Our Room — Threshing Floor and Instruments — Dinner in Oriental Style — Eating and Drinking together, the Sacrament of Brotherhood — The Sacramental Supper — Suffering from Thirst — Berea — Episcopal Oppression — Pella — Obstacles to Progress 156

Chapter XII

Morse’s Early Telegraph — Mr. Chamberlain — Untimely Death — Prof. J. Lawrence Smith— Presentation of Telegraph to the Sultan — His Interest — Conversation — Peace Principles — Presence of the Sublime Porte— Ceremony of Leave-taking — Decoration to Prof. Morse — No Telegraph Line Constructed till Crimean War — Present Use of Telegraph 18b

CHAPTER Xin.

Secular Employments —What Course shall the Missionary take? — Must know the Country— Help the Poor to help Themselves — Promote Industry — Zulu Mission — The Veteran Lindley— Williams of Erromanga — Why have Artisans failed on Mission Ground? — Authority — To be used for Development of Power — Prof. Smyth’s Theodolite Screw — Steam Engine — Gen. Neal Dow — Engineers 195

Chapter XIV

Condition of Evangelical Armenians — Seminary Students — W orkshop — Outsiders Employed — Camphene — Rat-traps

CONTENTS.

ix

— Steam Flour-mill— Charles Ede, Esq. — “ Capitulations.”

— Hon. Geo. P. Marsh — Opposition — Interdict — How Overcome— First Batch — Dressing French Biihr Millstones —

One Year and Results 212

CHAPTER XY.

Crimean War — Bible Society — Russian Ambassador’s Declaration— Hospitals — Bread — Greek Flour Merchants — Confidence in Missionary Character — Sufferings in the Hospital — Florence Nightingale and her Nurses — Battle of Inkerman — Laundry — Church out of a Beer-barrel — Stolid-looking Workman — Dr. Bartol— Cholera and Storm — Skilful Boatmen — The Men come up to Duty — Oriental Courage — Return Home 226

CHAPTER XYI.

Church-building — Rodosto Chapel — Question of a Church in Brusa — Building Undertaken by Dr. Dwight and Myself — Injured by an Earthquake — Sagacity of the Horse — Earthquake at Sea — The Church Destroyed — Terible Destruction at Brusa — Rebuilding, Earthquake-proof — Why Destruction of Life not Great — How Many Destroyed — 200 ?

— 6,000? — Discussion about the Sabbath — Lord Napier’s Decision — Vexatious Lawsuit— Ninth Trial — Turkish Law in the Case — Final Disposal of the Case by Purchase — Bishop and Judge left out — Church Paid for by Bakery — Question of the Usefulness of Church Buildings — Growth of Brusa Church — Winding up of Bakery — Balance of $25,000 — Building Fund — Purchase of College Hill at Kharpoot — House for the Board 244

CHAPTER XVII.

Bulgarians — Early Knowledge of — Excellent Gardeners — Meth. Epis. Mission on Danube — Meeting at Palmyra—

X

CONTENTS.

Tour South of the Balkans — Gabriel — Adrianople — Bulgarian Teacher — National Awakening as to Language and Education — Greek Bishop and Bulgarian Merchant — Whose Head was broken — A Paulician — Moslems not Turks — Serfage — Final Freedom — Greek Language and Greek Bishops — Orta-keuy — Reception of Pilgrims — Fine . Conduct of the Crowd — School Taxation— Greek Teacher and His Story — Jason and the Argonauts — Final Report, and Formation of Mission — Progress of the Bulgarians — Language — Self-government by Exarch — Hope for the Future

CHAPTER XVIII.

Education — Extended Discussion of Methods — 1st. Vernacular System — 2d. No Education — Pres. Seelye— 3d. Sound Christian Education— Experience of Missions with regard to second Theory — Burrisal Mission — Dr. Mullens’ Testimony upon other Missions— Tendency of Missionary Experience— Testimony of Dr. Wilson and Dr. Duff — Utter Failure of the Vernacular System — Introduction to Mr. Robert — Project of a Christian College in Turkey — Its Fundamental Principles — Resignation of Connection with the Board *

CHAPTER XIX.

ROBERT COLLEGE.

Purchase of Site — Failure in raising Funds — Accession of Abdul Aziz — Interdict by a Pasha — Purchase of a New Site — Sami Pasha’s Confession — Leave Obtained — Jesuit and Russian Influence — Mr. J. P. Brown— The Old Bebek Seminary— Adet — Difficulty of Name — Mr. Robert’s Interdict-Growth of the College— The Abbe Bord — Direct Appeal— Sir Henry Bulwer and His Treachery — Leave to Build — Imperial Irade — Gentlemen who had a part in the Work — A’ali Pasha Friendly — Laying of Corner-stone —

CONTENTS.

XI

Addresses in Different Languages — Description of Building— Eighteen Nationalities — Other Colleges — Union of Nationalities in the Faculty 287

CHAPTER XX.

SCOURGES OF TURKEY.

Plague— Cholera — Malaria — Medical Treatment 302

CHAPTER XXI.

Koran alone not Mohammedan Law — Tradition — Various kinds of Tradition — From Mohammed — From the four Caliphs— Feeble Tradition — Fetvas— Reduced to a Code by Mehmet the Conqueror and by Sulieman the Magnificent, a. d. 1550 — Multeka-ul-ubhhur— Confluence of the Seas — • Religious Code — Attributes of God — Free will and Fate — Immaculate Conception — Law against Divination, etc. — Ritual — Daily Prayer — Funerals — Tithes upon Luxuries— Spiritual Retreats — Prayer — Pilgrimage — Morals — Subjects of this part of the Code — Political Code — Four Parts — “Exigencies of the Times.” — Dethronements — Finance— Strangers in Moslem Lands — Military Code — Declaration of War — Captives — Conquered Lands — Rebels — Condition of People in subject Lands — Property —Costume— Churches — Civil Code — Marriage and Divorce — Parental and Filial Relation — Wills and Real Estate — Slaves— Commerce — Miscellaneous Laws— Mixed Court — Witnesses — Penal Code— Blasphemy — Apostasy -Sedition — Murder — Adultery — Opprobrious Epithets — Drunkenness— Thefts— Robbery 317

CHAPTER XXII.

Islam misunderstood — Koran obscure to the Western Mind — Aimed at Paganism— Taken from O. T. — Mohammedan

Religion to be sought in Tradition— Theism — No new Rev-

Xll

CONTENTS.

elation — Reaction against Polytheism — Theism approved by Reason and Conscience — Fatalism — They do not try to reconcile Fate and Free Will — Dr. Draper and Ghazzali — Effect ot Fatalism — Opposed to a high Civilization — Ritualism— Severe and exact — Its Influence — Sensualism — In the Koran — More still in Tradition — Islam a strong Religion— Strength from Environment — Influence of Christian Nations upon Turkey — English Influence — Sir Henry Bulwer — Circassians — Loans — Wane of Islam — Revival— Oriental Churches 343

CHAPTER XXIII.

Ottomans and Misrepresentation — Turkey Reported by Travellers — Levantine Dragomans — Correspondents — Telegraphs—Associations to collect Faults and Misdeeds —

The Savage Tribes of the Empire — Nothing more needed on that Side — Not Immoral to speak the Truth — I. Increase of Religious Liberty — II. Abolition of Confiscation and Bastinado — The Bloody Code Abolished — HI. The whole Scheme of Moslem Education Revolutionized — IV. European Law Introduced — Old Law of Church-building Abolished— Progress — Y. Material Progress — Increase of Revenue — Progress in the Arts of War — YI. Position of the Government towards Christian Subjects (Rayahs) —

The Medjliss, Christians, Rayahs, admitted to high Offices — List of Rayahs in Office — Forces that have produced the Change — Two great Changes necessary — Conclusion 356

AMONG THE TURKS.

Chapter I

ORIGIN OF THE EMPIRE.— A. D. 1300.

The origin and growth of the Ottoman empire have attracted the attention and wonder of the civilized world. It sprang from an obscure tribe of about four hundred families dwelling on the banks of the river Sangarius, which flows from the Bithynian Olympus into the Black Sea. There was nothing to suggest the possibility of its coming power. There was nothing new in its faith or its civilization. It had no pre-eminence in arts or arms. It had no knowledge of the world, except of its immediate surroundings. And yet it was destined to control some of the fairest portions of the world, including the whole of Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, Assyria, Armenia, Colchis, the Chersonesus, Dacia, Moesia, Thrace, Illyricum* Macedonia, Greece and all her islands, Syria, Arabia, Egypt, and the African coast; all, and more than all, that was controlled by the Seljukian empire of the Turks and the Byzantine empire of the Greeks. The personal

Among the Turks.

character of Osman, the ambitious and able founder of the empire, may account for the early successes. But neither the personal character of the ruler nor the Mohammedan religion can account for ages of exceptional growth and power. For one ceased with his life, immediately after the taking of Brusa ; and the other was an old factor of political life, which could not sustain the Saracenic power, nor the Seljukian, out of which the Ottoman sprang. We must rather look to the institutions of the nascent empire for an explanation of its remarkable success and steady growth.

The founder passed away, just as he had won Brusa for his capital. He transmitted his possessions to his two sons, Qrkhan and Alladin. The latter refusing to share the power with. his brother, became his grand vizir, and gave himself to the organization of this wild and turbulent empire.

His first and great measure was the organization of a standing army, not for a particular conquest or campaign, but to be devoted thenceforth to the profession of arms. Another original measure for that period (a.d. 1326) was giving the entire army such a uniform that every man should be known, at sight, as to his rank and position in the army, whether officer or private. Thus far the army had been a horde of mounted fighters, of shepherd warriors. They were now divided into infantry and cavalry, and those not competent for service were sent to their homes. Very special attention was given to the turban as an important article of the

Bashi-bozook— Laws of War.

military uniform, its different forms and colors giving every needed variety. Hence Bashi-bozook (rotten head or irregular head) came to designate any one who, without a uniform, was fighting on his own hook. Every armed mob is a collection of Bashi-bozooks. As every Mohammedan considers himself born to be a soldier, there is no want of Bashi-bozooks, irregular fighters, whenever there is war.

The pursuits of war and agriculture being now separated, a simple form of village government was adopted. A kadi or a chief man, with a council of the notables, appointed by the villagers themselves, regulated all their affairs. This form of municipal government still exists, and, in the hands of an' intelligent and virtuous people, would effectually secure them against oppression.

The laws of war were so promulgated as to inspire the army with the lust of conquest. There was one object never lost sight of, which greatly modified them. The object of Orkhan and his brother was to found a great and flourishing empire. Nothing was therefore to be destroyed beyond the exigencies of war. The lands subdued were to be possessed, and therefore not to be desolated. More of rhetoric and imagination than historic truth has been expended upon the blade of grass that doesn’t grow after the sultan’s horse has passed. A phrase referring to Attila has been applied to all the sultans. Their guiding principle was preservation for their own use. The value of

Among the Turks.

captives also often arrested the uplifted arm. It was then the universal law of war that the lives of the conquered were at the mercy of the conqueror, and nothing but the value in money saved the lives of those who surrendered. The conquered were reduced to slavery, kept or sold as slaves, the females incorporated into the harem, and thus the wastes of war were at the expense of the enemy.

The advancement of the faith in war was never lost sight of. The Mohammedan is first of all religious. All who professed Islam were restored to freedom and to the possession of their goods. And all who yielded without fighting, were also secure in the possession of their property. Von Hammer affirms that thousands of families passed over from the Byzantine domination to the Turkish on account of the greater security of life and property. The confiscated lands were divided to the army and to the sultan, and large domains were granted to the mosques for the support of the faith.

Both religion and self-interest contributed to make the army submit to its new organization and severe discipline, and to inspire it with the love of conquest. The idea of a standing army, in this sense, had not then entered into the European mind.

Another institution arose under this second sultan; the terrible institution of the Janizaries, the work of Kara Halil Tschendereli. One thousand Christian youth, of the finest and most athletic forms, were selected and torn from their homes,

Institution of the Janizaries. 17 subjected to the severest discipline and the most exact but nutritious diet, their chief officers being named from culinary operations, and the kitchen made a chief magazine of war; all with the design of forming a magnificent bodyguard for the sultan in the field. They were rewarded by high pay and a special share , of the booty, and were thus made the very elite of the army. They soon made their name a terror, and their prowess decided many a bloody day when the cross went down before the crescent.

This singular body of troops existed nearly five hundred years. Its numbers increased to twenty, according to some, to forty thousand. It became a hereditary caste, the sons of the soldiers alone being admitted, and by consequence, the tax upon Christian families ceasing. Von Hammer states that, while it lasted, not less than half a million of Christian youth were tom from their homes to recruit this choice body of the Moslem army — an outrage upon human nature which has no parallel, except perhaps in the treatment which Russia has bestowed upon Polish youth.

Orkhan had now a more permanent, better organized, better disciplined, and better paid army than any monarch of Europe possessed. It consisted of horse, foot, and Janizary guards, emulating each other in their bloody work. He proceeded at once to make use of it. Nice fell; and over the altar where the first Christian council was gathered, he carved with his yatagan “ God is God 2

Among the Turks.

and Mohammed is the prophet of God.” Nicomedia Cyzicus, and many other places, shared the same fate. The whole country along the southern shore of the Marmora, and almost to the Bosphorus, submitted to his sway.

The new forces of this singular state consisted in its very original institutions. It was organized as no other state had been, both for peace and war.

Orkhan, or perhaps more correctly his brother Alladin, was the true founder of the empire; and intelligent Moslems who study their own history, always speak of him with great admiration. He was the lawgiver, the great administrator, while Orkhan was the leader of the armies to battle.

It thus became an empire consecrated to war. The whole nation was inspired by this one idea of conquest. Both officers and men knew their work, and no sultan could have successfully adopted a policy of peace. The early conquests were not so much due to any great military leader, as to the fact that the whole nation was military, and war its normal work. If “they that take the sword shall perish by the sword,” then its present decadence and dismemberment are only the retribution which our Lord himself announced, and which the constitution of the world imposes upon the nation that trusts in war.

The youthful empire had two enemies to oppose and obstruct its ambitious designs. The Seljukhm Turkish empire and the Byzantine Greek empire were both in its path. The former was a kingdom

The Two Empires.

divided against itself. Its great sultan, Malek Shah, had made his twelve sons governors of provinces, and their ambition and their internecine wars had reduced that conquering power to such fragments, that it was waiting for some new force to reunite them.

The Byzantine empire was in a still more deplorable state, resembling the present condition of the Turkish empire, but without any solid element, like the Moslem population, to maintain its life.

The Christianity of the empire was lost in drivelling superstitions. Magic and charms and relics and miraculous pictures, and holy fountains and places, were all that remained of the Gospel among the common people. The court was buried in luxury, the people in poverty. The central government had no power over the provinces, and in its internal dissensions often called upon the Turks for aid. Whoever will look over Labeau’s, or any other history of the Byzantine empire, will only wonder that it endured so long. If its government was demoralized, its religion was paganized. The time was approaching when it must pass away.

The lamentations often raised over the rich, populous, and happy lands desolated by the Turks, are not justified by history. They had long been the prey to every species of disorder, otherwise the Mohammedan conquests could never have been achieved.

Chapter II. Growth Of The Empire

The growth of the Ottoman empire is often spoken of as extremely rapid. It was steady, almost uninterrupted, rather than rapid. It gained its capital, Brusa, in 1326. It could not effect a lodgment on European soil until 1357. After this, almost one hundred years of growth and expansion must pass away before it could take Constantinople. During this time, it was by no means idle. It subdued the Seljukian provinces, and enlarged its territories both in Europe and Asia. The taking of Constantinople, in 1453, was only the culmination of the military progress of a whole century. The Christian powers saw this steady advance, but did nothing to check it.

The fall of Constantinople has been considered by many writers as an event disastrous to Christianity and civilization. It gave a shock to Europe and the civilized world. But it was probably the salvation, rather than the destruction of Christianity, even in the East, which was then placed upon the defensive. If it did not lead directly to its reform it arrested its degeneracy. It was humiliated and oppressed, but not destroyed.

The Mohammedan law makes a distinction be-

Exemption Tax.

tween the religions which have a divine revelation and those which have not. The men of a book. “ Kitablees,” as Christians and Jews, are not to be destroyed nor forced to abandon their faith. Nor is military service to be required of them. The soldier is a defender of the true faith, and therefore neither Christian nor Jew could be relied upon as a true soldier. Instead of military service, a special tax was imposed upon all Christian and Jewish subjects. This system has continued to the present day. This is so well known, and has been so universally and uniformly acted upon, and has constituted such a prominent fact in the Ottoman administration, that one may well be surprised to hear one of England’s distinguished scholars and statesmen declare that military service has been demanded of all except the five millions of Roumania and Servia ! This freedom from military service, while a mark of degradation in the eyes of the Moslem, has had some compensations. It has saved the young men of the Christian races from the wasting influences and destructive diseases of the camp and of the battle-field. It has secured to them more of industry and thrift. No traveller in Turkey can fail to notice, in passing from a Turkish to a Christian village, low as the civilization of both may be, that some signs of growth and progress are to be seen in the Christian village, which will be looked for in vain in the Moslem. Even at this great disadvantage, Christianity is better than Islam.

Among the Turks.

The Christian populations have steadily increased, and gained upon the Moslem population. The large standing army, drawn exclusively from Moslem young men, makes serious inroads upon population. The camps are badly cared for, and camp diseases ravage them, as well in peace as in war. This makes a preponderance of females, extremely onerous and harassing to the poor Moslem. Not to give his daughter in marriage is a disgrace, and to provide a dowry that shall distance competition is impossible. The birth of a female child is therefore often considered a misfortune. A great deal of covert infanticide results from this. The Moslems are never guilty of the foeticide which is the curse of European civilization ; but the female infant often dies a natural death by the agency of the midwife, within a few days after birth. I have met with instances in which evidently some drug had been administered; the mother being anxious and suspicious, and in general not an accomplice. This crime has attracted government attention, but it is one not easily suppressed.

It has also attracted government attention, that their “rayahs” or Christian and Jewish subjects, the Armenians, Greeks, Bulgarians, and Jews, have nearly doubled within this half century, while the Moslem population is stationary. Irresistible forces would change eventually the balance of power without foreign interference.

Certain characteristics of the Moslem faith contribute their share to the effectiveness of all the

Influence of Fatalism.

adverse influences from which the Moslems suffer. They are firm believers in destiny. “What is written is written ” in the decrees of fate, upon “ the preserved tablet ” which Allah guards. This induces a serene composure, which makes them put off till to-morrow whatever presses upon them to-day. War finds them half prepared, now that it has ceased to be their constant pursuit. Famine and epidemics, resulting from war or other causes, sweep them away in grand composure. “ God is great.” “It is written.” “Kismet dur.” (It is fate). I have witnessed extraordinary instances of apparent satisfaction in death which was simply suicide, the sufferer refusing to take the simplest precaution against impending fate . Typhus, plague, cholera, and all their train, have ravaged the Moslem hosts unopposed.

The fall of Constantinople and the overthrow of the Byzantine empire, placed the clergy of the Christian sects upon a new foundation. Mehmet the Conqueror, ruthless and cruel as he was, knew what was necessary to the order and advancement of his empire. He had won a glorious capital, desolated and ruined by war. The country around had been eaten up by its invaders, industry was paralyzed, and starvation threatened to complete the destruction of war. He must rally and reassure the Christian populations both native and foreign.

One of his wisest and most effective measures was* the appointment of a Greek bishop to be pa-

Among the Turks.

triarch of all the Greeks. The Armenians and Jews were also organized under the same system. The sultan himself invested them in their robes of office, and his high officers offered them their felicitations. The patriarch, in addition to his spiritual office, was the civil chief of his community. Great power was given him over all his flock. He could inflict heavy penalties for spiritual offences, and his ingenuity could make almost any offence a spiritual one. As a recognized officer of the imperial government, it also gave him power to do much for the alleviation of the oppressed, and to bring the acts of unjust governors before the sultan. It gave a certain fixed status to Christianity in the realm, and did something to mitigate the sufferings of its followers. A number of important benefits resulted from this organization of the subject religions. It gave them a recognized status before the law. It was not one of equality, but it was something to have the right to claim justice, and always, if wronged, to appeal to the sultan.