A lecture on the winds, ocean currents, and tides [&c.].

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Preface

DEDICATED BY PERMISSION

TO

Dr. WILLIAM HENRY HADEN-HADEN,

A FRIEND has, since the issue of this second edition, suggested to me the expediency of striking out from the following pages the remarks I made on the 3rd of November regarding the circulation of the blood, on the supposition that to some it will form a stumbling block iu the way of accepting the more practical portion of the views I have expressed, whilst to others it may form a convenient handle for purposes of hostile criticism.

In view of this, I desire to emphasise what I stated on the 3rd November, to the effect that those remarks did not form an intrinsic part of the Lecture, and that I do not pretend in the following pages to have brought any argument to bear on that subject. In fact, when I rose to deliver the Lecture I had not the slightest intention of saying anything whatever on the subject. Having, however, said thus much, I am also bound to state that the opinion expressed is not one hastily or lightly formed. It is not based on

VI PREFACE.

directly inductive reasoning, but on a priori knowledge of the fact that the newly discovered action of gravitation must be in play affecting the living system, even if it were quite impossible for us to form any conception of the manner in which its action might produce effects. This latter is, however, far from being the case.

In the formation of a drop of water on a pane of glass, or on a blade of grass, we see one half of the requisite action. There the gravitation of the particles of moisture to each other causes them to rush together and so to form one large drop ; and if we imagine this drop to be formed in an elastic covering, then, as fast as this covering is expanded by the inrush of the fluid particles, its resisting or contractile effort must tend to drive back the fluid ; then, if there be channels connected with that elastic covering provided with valves, which in some of the channels, as in the veins, allow the fluid to pass into the elastic receptacle and not to flow back, then the contractile effort must drive the fluid out through those channels which, like the arteries, are not thus provided with valves to prevent such an exit, as fast as the tendency of the particles to gravitate together into one mass expands the elastic receptacle.

The remarks I made are not, however, based on any ideas of this sort, but on what I consider the discovery of the fact that gravitation is an act of vis inertice^ and is the primary force which emanates universally from matter, and is in constant process of transmutation into other forces, all of which must of necessity be traced to it, or else be in direct conflict with it ; so that every physical phenomenon is directly or indirectly connected with it. This forms an a priori reason for asserting that

PREFACE. VU

gravitation is in action on the circulation of tlie blood, even if it were impossible to imagine how it can act.

Vis inertice^ which, by the action of gravitation, is constantly drawing the blood to the heart, is in incessant conflict with the vital force, whose contractile power as incessantly drives the blood out through the arteries. When the vital power is exhausted, then at length vis inerticB is no longer resisted, and its last action of gravitation, which draws the contents of the veins into the heart, retains the blood there in the absence of sufficient vital force to resist this aggregation of the fluid particles caused by the direct action of gravitation. The arteries are empty when the force of gravitation which draws the blood to the heart is no longer exceeded by the vital force which drives the blood from the heart through the arteries. The fact that in cases of starvation or haBmorrhage the heart is empty and contracted tends to confirm the foregoing view, because, in the one case the last drop of blood has been absorbed by the system, and in the other case it has been removed ; so that in each case there is none left free to gravitate towards the heart.

INTBODUCTION.

The following advertisement appeared in several of the London daily and weekly papers at intervals preceding the Lecture : —

' A Lecture on " The Winds, Ocean Currents, and Tides, and what they tell of the System of the World," will be delivered at Willis's Rooms, King Street, St. James's, on Saturday evening, November 3rd, 1877, by William Leighton Jordan, Esq., F.R.G.S., author of

"The Elements: an Investigation of the Forces which determine the Position and Movements of the Ocean andAtmosphere"(1866) ; " Vis-inertiae : a Treatise on the action of Vis-

inertiae in the Ocean" (1868) ; "The Ocean: its Tides and Currents, and their

Causes" (1873); " Remarks on the recent Oceanic Explorations " (1877) ;

A 2

4 INTRODUCTION.

"The Winds, and their Story of the World" (1877).!

The principal basis of the Lecture will be a Chart and Sections of Oceanic Circulation published with the first of the above-mentioned works in 1866.^ The attendance of Fellows of the Royal, Royal Astronomical, and Royal Geographical Societies is earnestly requested.

Members or Ex-Members of the Council of the Royal Society and the Scientific Staff of the '' Challenger'' Expedition are specially invited to discuss what will be said by the Lecturer in demonstration of the new theory of Vis-inertiae, or the conflicting action of Astral and Terrestrial Gravitation.'

' Published in April.

* This Chart and Sections form the frontispiece to this pamphlet.

LECTUEE.

Ladies and Gentlemen, —

I do not to-night pretend to offer you a theoretical demonstration of the new theory of Vis-inertiaB. I invite your attention to a sketch of what that theory is, and then I hope to give you a practical demonstration that it has been proved to be true by investigations which have been made since the theory was published.

As I lift this book from the iable, there is some power which resists the effort I make to raise it. That power has been termed by Sir Isaac Newton — and before his time, and by all who have succeeded him — ^vis-inertiae, which Newton defined to be an innate power of resistance, by virtue of which the particles of which that book is composed resist the effort I make to take them from their state of rest upon the table.

According to Newton's own demonstrations, the earth's gravitation holds that book down upon the table, aud therefore the earth's gravitation is an intrinsic part of that power of vis-inertiae. And, according to those same demonstrations, every particle of the universe attracts every other particle : there is a connecting link between each one of them, and just exactly as the earth's gravitation attracts the particles of this book, so also every particle of the universe attracts these particles, and therefore, the earth's gravitation is not the only power attracting the particles of this book. Every particle of the universe is bound by a connecting link with it, and when I move that book, I, in fact, separate two distinct parts of matter which are by the power of gravitation held together — I exert a force to raise that book: with exactly the same force with which I raise that book, I, at the same moment, press with my foot downwards, and it is only because there are fewer connecting links between this book and the other powers of gravitation, that it is this book which absolutely moves, and the movement of the earth, as I press it in the opposite direction, is practically imperceptible. (Applause. )

I wish now to show you the action of a force between which and this power of vis-inertiaB there is a very slight difference. For this purpose I hoped to have had here on the table a glass of water ; but as that glass of water is not here, I beg you to imagine it here, and to believe the phenomena which I tell you exist, do exist in it — perhaps the water will be here before I absolutely require it. As I am now pouring out this water — at this moment I am afraid it is not sufficiently settled — but if anyone cares to come forward to see the character of the motions, they can do so. The great majority of those present, I dare say, are perfectly acquainted with it. As I hold up this glass, I have fixed on the rim a small piece of paper, and on the surface of the water, and quite close to it, I have placed another piece of paper. The piece on the glass is now facing you, and the piece floating is close to it on the surface of the water, and as I give the glass a turn in this direction, the particle of paper on the surface of the glass is moved round with it, but the piece on the surface of the water remained, more or less, where it was before, because the particles of water in the glass endeavour to remain in the position in which they were. They were in fact held in the positions in which they already were, and resisted the eflFort made to move them in this direction. Now, the power which held the water is not exactly vis-inertiae. The difference, when dealing with the phenomena of this glass of water, is exceedingly slight ; but when we come to deal with the subject of the ocean, the difference is exceedingly important.

We can all imagine this glass gradually to be increased in size, and more and more water put into it. After having been increased to a certain extent, then there would be a curve on the surface of the water, corresponding exactly with the curve of the earth's surface ; and we can imagine that glass increased in size, more water put into it, its shape changed, and, by gradual gradations, you might at length have a glass, or something to contain water, with all the water of the ocean in it, and of the same colossal configuration as the earth containing the ocean lying upon its surface. I cannot imagine any point at which the increase of size must necessarily be supposed to prevent the same forces which we see acting in this glass from acting upon the ocean, and the whole theory upon which these charts have been drawn is based upon the tendency of the water to retain its position. When we treat of this quantity of water as it lies upon the surface of the earth, we have in fact the earth's gravitation endeavouring to carry the water along with it, whilst the combined action of all the other powers of gravitation are tending to retain it in the position from which the earth's gravitation tends to carry it. To the extraneous power of gravitation I have applied the term Astral Gravitation, so that, on the one hand, we have terrestrial gravitation tending to carry the ocean along with the motion of the earth, and, on the other hand, we have a force of astral gravitation drawing back in the opposite direction.

As regards the rotation of the earth, the force of terrestrial gravitation acts as a revolving force. As the earth rotates, it endeavours to revolve the water with it, whereas the extraneous force of astral gravitation, endeavouring at each moment to hold each particle in the position which it last occupied, acts as a' retarding force, drawing the water upwards and backwards. Now, if it be once admitted that this revolving force does exist-^of which I do not now pretend to offer a proof-— but let it, however, be once admitted that it does exist — then it is simply a mathematical certainty that that force is at different distances from the earth inversely as the cubes of those distances; that is to say, as you recede from the earth's surface, that force not only constantly decreases, but decreases in a far greater ratio. If there be such a force, then we ought to expect to find that any objects which are round about the earth should lag more than the ocean does. We have one such body— the moon — at a great distance from the earth's surface, and in fact the motion of the moon is such that it does lag. As the earth rotates in the twenty-four hours, with that rotation endeavouring to carry the moon round with it, the moon lags constantly behind the positions to which the earth tends to carry it, and it takes twenty-eight days instead of one to revolve round the earth. Now if there be such a revolving force about the earth, it is only reasonable to suppose that there is the same revolving force about the sun ; at least, we cannot imagine the moon to be carried round by such a force, unless the planets are also carried

X 3 by a similar force round the sun; and as we have a lot of planets at diflFerent distances round the sun, we cannot help looking to see whether or not the actual velocities with which the planets revolve, do or do not corroborate the existence of such a revolving force. It is a mere matter of fact, and not of theory, that if you have about the sun such a revolving force as I have just described, and if you measure out the distances at which each planet is placed from the sun, at those distances take the square roots of the force which you have acknowledged to exist, then those square roots absolutely lay before you ihe mean velocities with which each planet actually revolves, or describes its orbit round the sun. (Cheers and applause.) These square roots give you the mean velocities of revolution for each planet. As I have looked into very many other more minute details connected with it, the attention I have given to it makes me consider that one fact quite enough to demonstrate the existence of that revolving force. I do not expect anyone else to do so, until they have looked more into the subject — until they have looked about to consider whether they can find any phenomena that might contradict it; and until anyone does that, I do not expect him to accept it as more than a coincidence ; but anyone who does look into it, will find it not merely a coincidence. But to my mind, there is one thing which enables this revolving force and the force of astral gravitation to set at defiance all assaults upon it, on whatever grounds they may be based. It is this : that having admitted the existence of the force, it is a mere matter of fact, because, as far as theory is concerned, I really do not know how to go to work to reason upon the subject; but I find, as a mere matter of fact, that as the planets revolve, the force of astral gravitation retarding their motions is directly as the squares of their velocities of revolution ; that is to say, that as the sun endeavours to carry the planets round with it, astral gravitation is retarding this motion, and the velocities with which they revolve, squared, give the forces of astral gravitation which oppose the motion in each orbit. It does so for this reason : that, according to this theory, the sun rotates, endeavouring to carry the planets with it, and that rotation carries the planets along their orbits, and as they move in their orbits, they are held in equilibrium between the centrifugal force of astral gravitation, and the centripetal force of solar gravitation; otherwise the planets would approach to or recede from the sun; and, therefore, supposing that the theory be true, then the force of astral gravitation is as the square of the velocity of revolution. Now, what I consider the clinching point of this, is the manner in which, when this is applied to the most ordinary phenomena about us, it explains phenomena which

a4

WINDS, OCEAN CURRENTS, AND TIDES.

I think never have been satisfactorily explained. I allude to one which I am not explaining for the first time. We are all accustomed to see a top spinning, and we take it as a matter of course that because the top is spinning it does not fall — we take it as a matter of course without caring to know the reason. When the gyroscope was first known, it was immediately asserted, and is still believed by many, that the motions of that gyroscope show that the laws of gravitation are imperfect, and that when the gyroscope is revolving at such a rate, the laws of gravitation are suspended, because it appeared that

the earth's gravitation ceased to act upon it. As regards that gyroscope, I am not going to discuss all the phenomena connected with it, but merely allude to that power by which it is sustained whilst it revolves, as being the same force which keeps the top from falling, and that is the force of astral gravitation. I have not a top here, but let us suppose that this plate is a section of that top with the peg turned in this direction, and that it rotates in this direction. Suppose the velocity of rotation be, say, 8 in this direction; if the top were not spinning at all, the earth's gravitation would draw it down, but

WINDS, OCEAN CURRENTS, AND TIDES. IS

when it begins to spin, if the resisting force of astral gravitation is equal to the square of velocity, then the resistance of astral gravitation is as the square of 8 on each side; but immediately the top moves from that position and begins to fall downwards — ^let us say with the velocity of 4, in a downward direction — then all the particles on that side of the top immediately, with this motion added to them, have their velocity increased; and that velocity of 4 added to the velocity of 8 makes the velocity of 12, whereas the velocity on this side is reduced to 4; so that the resistance of astral gravitation on this side is the square of 4, or say 16, whereas the force on that side is 144, say the square of 12; so that the force of astral gravitation on that side is 144 drawing upwards to 16 on this side drawing downwards. Thus there is a diflference of 128 representing an excess in the force of astral gravitation drawing upwards, and imless the earth's power of gravitation, drawing it downwards, is equal to that difference of 128, the top cannot fall; it is then supported, and it is only when the top's rotation becomes so slow that the earth's power of gravitation dragging it down is greater than the difference between those two forces of astral gravitation, that the top can fall. (Hear, hear.) The top, when spun, comes to the ground on its peg, because when the plane of rotation is horizontal, astral gravitation draws equally all round in that plane ; but when the plane of rotation is vertical, as in the illustration, its downward motion is resisted.

The top, when spun, falls upon its peg because astral gravitation will not allow it to fall upon its side. When I look into this I think it must convince any one of the accuracy of the theory; but that is not what I so much depend upon. My chief dependence is on the evidence of facts discovered since the theory was published. Now we have gone so far, I think I may point out that, excepting additions I have made extending the application of accepted laws, I have been thoroughly orthodox, and have not gone away from anything that Newton or others have done with him. I have kept completely with them ; but what I have done is simply this ; I have applied exactly the same laws which Newton applied to the planets — precisely those same laws I have applied to every particle of water in the ocean. If Newton is not right, then I am altogether on a wrong basis, because the only basis which I have to go upon is the correctness of his theory of gravitation ; but if we once admit the existence of this revolving force about the sun, and that the rotation of the sun actually does tend, and not only tend but does carry the planets along their orbits, then we no longer require the other half of his definition of vis-inertiae. I have told you that Newton says that the power which tends to keep this book at rest on the table is vis-inertiaB, but he also says that if I put this book in motion and throw it away, its vis-inertiae has then a tendency to keep that book moving for ever onwards, with the motion which I have given to it, and that the planets have, for some unknown reason, and from some unknown power, received each a primary impulse, and that the vis-inertiae of each planet tends to keep each one constantly moving in a straight line, from which straight line the sun's power of gravitation deflects them and keeps thein in their orbits.

But if once we admit the existence of this revolving force of gravitation, and that opposing forces of gravitation are keeping each one in its place as it goes along its path, then we no longer require the other half of that definition of vis-inertiae. The latter half of that definition of vis-inertiaB is, I assert, without the slightest fear of anyone in this room rising to contradict what I say, a mere fiction. It is a fiction, and always has been a fiction. It is a fiction invented to explain phenomena for which no other explanation had been found ; no practical evidence of its existence can be given in any physical phenomena. In the absence of the existence of this revolving force, that definition of vis-inertiae completely supplies the vacuum. It was requisite to explain why the planets were not drawn to the sun by the sun's centripetal force, and that definition most completely fulfils the purpose ; but if reason and argument show that this revolving force is in existence about the earth and about the sun as I say it is, acting just as we see its action in this glass of water, then we no longer require that fiction. Its imaginary action serves as a centrifugal force in theory, exactly the same as the retarding forces of astral gravitation, excepting this: that, for instance, if I throw anything onwards-^this book, or a ball — ^in any direction onwards, that ball is held in contact with every power of gravitation there is in the universe. As I throw it and impart to it a certain amount of motion, that motion is imparted by the ball to the particles of the air and ground which it strikes, imtil the amount of motive force exerted is spent, and then it is stopped in its career ; but even if the ball is thrown into free space, still there are those connecting links of gravitation which form that power termed vis-inertiaB, which endeavours to keep it at rest, and as it moves it is severing the connecting links with all other particles which are trying to keep it in its position, and therefore just as certainly its motion would be retarded if moving in free space as if it were moving along the ground.

I have frequently had the remark made to me, ' Oh, but the stars are so far off, they are at such an enormous distance from the earth, that their power must be quite imperceptible ; they can scarcely be felt here.' We know what the power of the earth is, and the gravitation of the sun, of the moon, and of the little planets. The stars are far off, but we don't know how large the stars are. We do not know the number of these stars ; but all these, even if infinitely small forces, make up a very great power ; and, to illustrate how very erroneous our first impressions on this subject may be, I wish to offer an illustration on a similar point on which all our ideas have, during the last twenty-five years, been completely revolutionised. Twenty-five years ago it was the opinion of every one, no matter how eminent in science or otherwise, that at the bottom of the ocean there could be no life, there could not exist any living animal or fish of any description, because it was known that the pressure at the bottom of the ocean was enormous, and it was supposed that no life could exist under such pressure. About the year 1854* — I think in that year — a small vessel of war called the Bulldog went out on a cruise, in command of Captain McClintock, afterwards Sir Leopold McClintock (applause), and in that vessel a scientific gentleman who had long been quietly making his observations among the mountains of India — Dr.Wallich (applause) — obtained permission from her Majesty's Government to go as a volunteer on board that vessel, in company w^ith Captain McClintock, for the purpose of dredging and making scientific observations, and attempting to ascertain whether or not the views which he had formed could be corroborated. As a result of that voyage, Dr., now Surgeon-major, Wallich published a small and unpretending pamphlet, in which he gives his reasons, which he says are absolutely conclusive of the fact that the bottom of the ocean teems with life, and not only teems with life, but there -are found the

most delicate organisms, more beautiful and delicate than you find generally on the surface of the earth ; and as a reason for the possibility of the existence of that life under the enormous pressure of four or five tons weight on every square inch, he suggests that the

animals in fact breathe that water: it permeates their systems so that the pressure is inside them as well as outside them (applause), and that they are therefore unconscious of it. We were astounded how any living creatures could exist there, but they did exist there, and were unconscious of any difficulty. Dr. Wallich pointed out that the only thing which would render it impossible for that life to exist there would be the necessity for these living organisms to have within them some parts into which the water could not enter, but otherwise there was no reason whatever why the most delicate organisms might not be found living under that enormous pressure as people do here, under a very trifling pressure. (Applause.) Ladies and Gentlemen, — What was then said by Dr. Wallich was for years treated with contempt. (Voices : * Shame ; ' ' No, no.') Well, I will not say with contempt — ^but a great many people knew too much, and had thought too much on the subject, to be ready to understand the bearing of it ; they had made up their minds that life could not exist under that pressure, and they thought that there must be some mistake, and no attention was given to Dr. Wallich's investigations; but the investigations made by the Challenger have triumphantly proved every word that Dr. Wallich wrote more than twenty years ago.* (Loud applause.) And now, I have simply made a slight allusion to this oceanic pressure for the purpose of illustrating the power of astral gravitation, so as to incline you to admit the existence of an enormous power about us of which we are unconscious. It has been constantly said that the stars are at such a distance from the earth, that their power must be only slight; but if we once suppose that the universe is infinite — I do not pretend to say that it is — if we once admit that, then all these very small particles of power make up an infinite power, and if you compare the force of this infinite power with the mere force of the earth's gravitation, it is as if you were to compare the hour, or hour and a half, during which we are here this evening, with eternity. That power is so vast, that when we have to deal with such a power, we have to recognise that any movement may be controlled by slight difierences in its action — if we make the slightest movement there is a complex changing of our connecting links with particles of that infinite power — and thus we see that the power of gravitation is capable of the most stupendous results, even on a very slight movement. Since April last, results of investiga-

* 17 years. See page 34.

tions have been brought before me— investigations, with which I ought to have been acquainted long ago— investigations for some years past carried on and conducted at St. Thomas's Hospital. The gentleman who originated them, and who has with untiring attention carried them on, is Professor Rainey, with whom I am scarcely acquainted — I have only met him once — but the course of Ids investigations is this : He places small quantities of water in glass vessels of different shapes, and in every conceivable manner brings the microscope to bear upon them. He has kept for years the same quantity of water, hermetically sealed, in the same small glass ; he has also changed the nature of the contents, and put glycerine and other matter in the water, and all with the same result; no matter what attempts he has made to prevent the action of heat, or any difference of temperature acting on the water, however he attempts to keep the water still and prevent forces coming to bear upon it, the microscope reveals the existence of currents and countercurrents in every case, so much so, that, when he has arranged the microscope at a certain focus, he will find a wave going on in a certain direction (applause), and he will then quietly say to you, if that motion is going on only in that direction, all the water on this side would be carried to that side, which is impossible — there must be countercurrents to return the water which you see flowing in that direction. He will then change the focus, so that you look to a greater depth. The quantity of water is very slight, and as you go on changing the focus, you begin to see a clearly defined motion in the opposite direction — ^you will come upon a returning current. And after years of careful investigation, Professor Rainey has been unable to get the water to keep quiet — ^it will circulate, no matter what he does, and Professor Rainey has attempted an explanation of it. I am not going to say that that explanation is correct — I will leave that for others, who have given more attention to the subject — but this I will say: I think, in the last paper published by Professor Rainey brought to my attention, he says, that the only way in which he can account for this is, that particles of water have a power of cohesion among themselves, and that there is an external force of gravitation trying to derange it, and not acting as that power of cohesion acts, so that the particles are constantly changing their positions. Now, these forces of cohesion and gravitation, as Professor Rainey describes them, are identical with those of terrestrial and astral gravitation; for terrestrial gravitation really is the cohesion of the particles of the earth together, and astral gravitation is that, to which Professor Rainey gives the term gravitation, acting upon it, and deranging its action, causing a conflicting action which he is not able to stop by changing the temperature, however he attempts to do it. (Hear, hear.)