Historic incidents and life in India

Front matter

A Jain Temple at Ajmer supposed to have been built before the Christian Era.

HISTORIC INCIDENTS

AND

Preface

India, by a long series of remarkable events, has become a land of great interest, not only to the philosopher and statesman, but to the general reader. The inhabitants of no other country can boast of antiquity more remote, of historic incidents more important, or of warriors, statesmen, and poets more renowned. The modern scholar and antiquarian can revel in the abundance of the literary works of India written thousands of years ago, in a language which excels all others in perfection and refinement. Among these are poems containing four hundred thousand lines, while the longest poem in the English language contains less than eleven thousand.

The conquest of India by a European p(^er, and the recent thrilling events* of the Sepoy mutiny, have excited a general desire to know more of the history, manners, customs, and superstitions of the various ancient and peculiar races which inhabit that portion of the world. To furnish such information in an attractive and at the same time in a condensed form, is the object of this volume. In its preparation, brevity, clearness, and vivacity of style have been carefully studied, and numerous pictorial illustrations have been introduced, which convey to the mind, in a pleasing and impressive manner, much information which could not be communicated without their aid. As the subject matter has been collected by extensive travel in India, and as the illustrations have been engraved from drawings taken on the spQt, the volume is presented to the reading public with the confident expectation that it will be found to possess the merit of accuracy and truthfulness.

J. A. Braineed.

Chapter I. Page

India from the EarKest Times regarded with Great Interest. ... 17

Its Extent, Climate, and Population . 18

Its Annexation to England — Ornaments — Costumes. . . . 19

Food — Peculiar Customs at Meals — Habitations. . . . 20

Seclusion of Females — Domestic Chapels. ... . 21

Modes of Travelling — Choultries, or Inns . . 22

Attachment to Ancient Customs — Illustrative Anecdote. ... 23

Villages and Village Governpient — Ownership of Lands. . 24

The Shasters — Their Antiquity — Subjects of which they treat. . 25

Abstract of Portions of the Ramayan ... 28

How the Events of the Ramayan are regarded by Hindus. . . 33

A Temple where 1500 Monkeys are maintained and worshipped. 33

Reverence for, and Anecdotes of. Monkeys. ... 34

Creation of Man, and Institution of Caste. .... 36

Incidents illustrating the Influence of Caste. ... 37

Brahminical Shrewdness — Sitting in Dhema. . 40

A Priest sitting in Dherna commits Murder and Suicide. 41

Great Excitement in Benares, caused by a Tax on Houses. . . 42

Three Hundred Thousand of its Inhabitants sit in Dherna. ... 43

The Tax repealed, and Confidence restored 44

The Hindus a Religious People — 330,000,000 of Gods. . 45

Character of the Gods portrayed by Extracts from the Shasters. . . 45

Horrid Forms of the Images by which they are represented. . . 51

Kali's Thirst for Blood — Her Delight in Human Sacrifices. ... 53

The Secret Society of Thugs instituted by Kali 63

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER II. Hindu Festivals and their Influence upon the People 55

Scene at a Festival in honor of Ganesa. . ... . . 55

Dancing Girls — Their Costume and Mode of Dancing. . . . . 56

Specimen of their Songs . . ... 56 *

Dancing Girls united in Wedlock to Idols. . . i. . . .57

Communities of Dancing Girls. . . ■ . 57

Ba-yees, or Dancing Boys. . . . . 58

The Great Temple of Juggernaut at Piui. ... 58

Car Festival of Juggernaut . 59

Immense Multitudes of Pilgrims . 59

Personal Appearance of Juggernaut — His Wardrobe. . . . 60

The three principal Idols placed upon three huge Cars. 61

An Assemblage of Fifty Thousand Beggars . . 62

Drawing of the Idol Cars. . . . ... 63

A boisterous and terrific Midnight Scene. . ,* . . . . 64

CHAPTER III. Origin of the Goddess Durga, as related in the Shasters. . 66

Preparations for the Durga Festival in Calcutta. . . . . 69

Manufactiu-e of Idols. . . . , . . .... 70

Consecration of Idols. ... . .71

Every House converted into a Temple . . 73

Structure of Houses — Decorations and Uluminations. . . 73

Ceremonials of Worship 74

Musicians — Dancing Girls — Carousals. . .... ... 7-5

Presentation of Offerings to the Idols . . . 75

Immense Value of the Offerings *. . .... 76

Offerings of Animals to be sacrificed . .■ . .77

Sixty-five Thousand Animals offered by one Person. ... 78

Manner of sacrificing the Animals . . 78

The Heads and the Blood presented to the Idol . . 79

CONTENTS. 9

Disposal of the Flesh of the Animals. . 79

Antics and Revels of the Worshippers. . . 80

The Goddess sent back to her Native Heaven. , 81

Numerous Festive Processions ^ . 82

The Images of Durga thrown into the Ganges. .... 82

A vast and tumultuous Assemblage. . , , . . 83

The Charak Festival. ... . . .83

Swinging Machines and Hook Swinging. , . 84

Dancing with Naked Feet upon Fire. 85

Other cruel Modes of Worship. , 85

Vast Multitudes of Worshippers. 87

Numerous Processions of Devotees. 88

Pageants and Pantomimic Performances. . . 89

Arrival at the celebrated Temple of Kali-Ghat. 89

Offerings of Money to the Idol. . 90

Scenes of Cruelty and Confusion. . . 91

Numerous Modes of Self-inflicted Torture. 92

The Mohurrum Festival. . 94

Its Origin — nScenic Representations. . . .95

CHAPTER IV. The Ganges — Its Islands and their Inhabitants. 97

Form of Prayer addressed to the Ganges. 98

The Sick carried to the Ganges. . . . .99

They cannot legally be restored to Health. . 100

The Dead thrown into the Ganges. . . 101

Its Waters used for Culinary Purposes. . .101

Pilgrimages to the Ganges — Tragic Scene at Hurdwar. 102

Festival at Allahabad, and Scenes witnessed there. 102

Religious Suicides — Novel Ofiering. . 104

Benares, the Holy City of the Hindus — Its Temples. 105

Offerings to the Souls of the Departed. . 106

Pilgrim Tax — Religious Marriage of Animals. 107

The Sacred Ox — Evil Spirits .108

Infants offered to Evil Spirits — Dreams — Visions. . . . 109

CONTENTS.

Witchcraft — Trial by Ordeal 110

Duties of Hindu Wives to their Husbands. ... .... Ill

Laws respecting Women 112

Condition of Women — Widows 113

Chapter V

Gautama, the Founder of Buddhism — Legend from the Shasters. . 115 Mendicity supposed to be Meritorious. ... ... .122

Mendicants who assume the Manners of Milkmaids. . 122

A Sect of Mendicants worshipped as Gods — Anecdote. . 123

A Devotee who had been standing Eight Years. ... .124

Merit of repeating the Names of the Gods — Anecdote 124

Devotees who keep their Arms constantly elevated .125

Painful and Laborious Modes of Pilgrimage. ... ... 126

The Souls of the Departed divided into Five Classes 127

Hospitals for Animals, Reptiles, and Insects. ... . .128

CHAPTER VI. Secret Society of Thugs — Assassins and Robbers by Profession. . 129

The Legend by which they prove their Right to murder 130

Additional Proofs from Ancient Sculptures at EUora. . ... 132

The Corpses of their Victims disposed of by the Goddess Kali. 134

Loss of her Services as Sextoness . .135

The Pickaxe with which the Thugs dig Graves. ... . 135

Remarkable Superstitions respecting the Pickaxe. . . . . 136

Swearing by the Pickaxe, the most binding of Oaths 139

Gangs of Thugs — Their Numbers and Stratagems. . ... 140

Manner in which they strangle their Victims. . . . . 142

Precautions taken to guard against Discovery or Surprise 143

Mutilation of the Dead — Its Object ... 144

Division of the Booty — One Share for Religious Purposes. . . . 145

Secret Signs and Phrases . .145

Probable Number of Persons strangled by Thugs. ; . . 146

The Profession of Thuggee hereditary 146

CONTENTS. 11

An Affecting Incident related by a Thug. ......... 148

The Thugs guided in all their Proceedings by Omens 150

Omens the Mandates of the Goddess Kali — Good and Bad Omens. 150

Mohammedan Thugs. 151^

Conversation with Thug Prisoners. 151

Measures taken for the suppression of Thuggee 156

CHAPTER VII. The Hindus and the Aborigines of India 157

The Aborigines driven to the Hills and Mountains 158

Oppressive Laws relative to the Aborigines, 159

Domestic Habits and Degradation of the Pariahs 159

Number and General Character of the Aborigines 160

The Shdndrs — Their Occupation. 161

Manner and Object of climbing t]^e Palmyra Palm 162

Persons who die a Violent Death supposed to become Demons. . .* 163

Diseases supposed to be inflicted by Evil Spirits. 163

Exorcism of Evil Spirits — Fantastic Costumes — Music 164

Demon Dances — The Dancer deified — Sacrifices to Demons. . . 165

Demons of Recent Origin — The Tudas 166

Their Personal Appearance and Domestic Habits. 167

Food — Lactariums — Sacred Groves — Priests 168

Worship of Bells — Sacred Herds — Dying Requests 169

Funeral Ceremonies, Processions, and Sacrifices 170

The Scape Calf — Funeral Pile 171

Personal Appearance and General Character of the Khonds. . . . 172

Their Ideas respecting the Creation of the Earth and of Man. . . 173

Primeval State — Introduction of Sin and Death 174

Contentions between the God Boora and his Wife Tari — Sects. . . 175

Creation of Inferior Divinities .... 176

The Four Souls of Man — Dinga, the Judge of the Dead 177

Punishments inflicted by Dinga — Virtues and Vices 178

Origin of Human Sacrifices — Forms assumed by the Gods. . . . 179

Priesthood, and the Peculiar Manners and Customs of Priests. . . 180

Novel Method of ascertaining the Cause of Disease 183

CONTENTS.

Festivals and Sacrifices — Form of Prayer. 184

Human Sacrifices. . 186

Method of obtaining Human Victims . . 187

^Preparations for the Sacrifice — Address to Tari . 188

Feasting and Dancing — The Victim led to the Sacred Grove. . 189

Form of Prayer for the increase of Wealth .190

Dramatic Recitations of Historic Legends. . . . . .191

Xhe Victim sacrificed, and his Flesh cut in Pieces. . . 195

Prayer for Eiches as the Reward of the Sacrifice. . . . . 196

The Pieces of Flesh buried to render the Earth productive. . 197

Various Modes of sacrificing Human Victims. . . . . 198

A Hymn addressed to the Gods 198

Measures adopted to suppress Human Sacrifices. . . . . 199

Rescue of Two Thousand Persons intended for Sacrifice. . 199

Female Infanticide — Great PoUtical Influence of Females. 200

Remarkable Matrimonial Usages. . . ^. . . . . 201

Superstitions and Customs which lead to Infanticide. . . . 202

Female Infanticide among the Rajputs and Minas. . . . 203

Exertions made to abolish Female Infanticide. . . . 203

Personal Appearance and Domestic Habits of the Gonds, 204

The Bheels and Coolies Thieves and Robbers by Profession. . 205

Their Domestic Habits and Religious Superstitions. . . . 205

Personal Appearance of the Garrows — Their Dances. 207

Marriages — Religious Ceremonies — Funerals. . . . 208

The Kookies — Traditions respecting their Origin. . . . 209

Dwellings — Ornaments — "Weapons — War Parties. . 210

Heads of the Slain preserved — Marriages. . ... 211

Adroitness in Stealing a Cardinal Virtue. . . . . 211

Their Divinities and Religious Ceremonials. . . . . . 212

The Veddahs - Their Habitations and Food. ... . . 213

Division into Clans — Peculiar Mode of Barter. . . 214

Language — Marriages. ... ..215

Religion and Religious Dances — A Legend 216

Extreme Ignorance of the Veddahs . .217

Their Social Customs and General Character. . . . 219

Successful Eff'orts to instruct and civilize them. . . . . . 221

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER VIII. The Sepoy Mutiny — Startling Announcement. . . ... 224 '

Refusal to use the New Cartridges — Coercive Measures 225

Mutiny at Barrackpore — Two of the Mutineers hung. . . . 225

The Governor-General issues a Proclamation. ... . 226

Mutiny of the 7th Oude Infantry. P . . ... 22^

Mutiny at Meerut, and Massacre of the Europeans . 227

Mutiny at Delhi, and Massacre of the Eiiropeans. . . 227

Mutinies at Ferozepore and other Places. .... 228

Advance of Troops to Delhi, . . . ... ... 229

Mutiny and Massacre of Europeans at Seetapore. . . . 230

Mutinies and Massacres. . 231

Mutiny and Massacre at Allahabad 233

An Unequal and Desperate Conflict 234

Mutiny at Fyzabad ■ — Rebellion in Oude. . ... . . 235

Lucknow besieged by Mutineers. . . . . 235

Defection of Troops at Lucknow — Mutinies. ... . , 236

Mutiny and Massacre at Jhansie . . . . 237

Mutinies and "Massacres . . 238

Mutiny at, and Siege of, Cawnpore. ... . . . . 239

Treachery of Nana Sahib, and Massacre of Europeans. . . . 240

Massacre of 150 European Women and Children at Cawnpore. . . 243

Mutinies and Massacres at Sealcote and other Places. . . 244

Sanguinary Battle near Agra — Mutinies and Murders. . 245

General Havelock recovers Cawnpore — Scene of the Massacre. . . 246

Exemplary Punishment of Rebels 247

Nana Sahib's Palace and Stronghold captured and burnt. . . 248

Mutiny at Dinapore — Relief of Lucknow by Havelock. . . 248

The Garrison withdrawn by Sir Colin Campbell. . . .... 249

Operations of the Army before Delhi. ... ... 250

The Storming of Delhi ... 251

Pursuit of Insurgents — Mutiny at Jubbulpore. ... . . 253

Plot at Bombay — Condition of Rajputana. . . .... 254

Anarchy in Central India — Battle at Mehidpore 255

CONTENTS.

Defection of Scindia's Troops 256

Cawnpore taken and re-taken — Dispersion of Rebels. . . . 257

Mutinies at Chittagong and Dacca — Nepaulese Troops 258

Dispersion of Rebels — Proceedings at Lucknow. ...... 259

Storming of Lucknow ... .... 261

Siege and Capture of Jhansie t • • 262

Capture of Calpee, Konch, Kotab, and Bareilly 263

5^feat of Rebels at Sbahjehanpore^d Nuwabgunge 263

Gwalior taken and re-taken ' . 264

Condition of the Country — Rebels put to Flight 265

Dissolution of the East India Company ... . 265

Proclamation of Queen Victoria to her Subjects in India. . . 266

Attack on Rampore — Defeat and pursuit of Bainie Madhoo. . . 266

Defeat of Tantia Topee, and other Rebel Chiefs. . ... 267

The Rebels seek Shelter in Nepaul, and are pursued. . . . 268

Cessation of Military Operations in Oude . 268

Pursuit, Capture, and Execution of Tantia Topee . 269

Portions of the Queen's Proclamation misunderstood 270

Caste Prejudices respecting the Costume of the Shanar "Women. . 271

Day of Thanksgiving for the Success of British Arms in India. . . 272

ENGRAVINGS.

Interior of a Temple at Ajmer. . . .... Frontispiece.

Hindu Family and Dwelling. . ... opposite page 18

Interior of a Dwelling at Meal Time. . 18

Interior of a First Class House in the City of Benares. . 20

Interior of the Great Choultry at Madura. . 20

Hindu of Bengal, of High Rank, in Full Dress. 22

Hindu Woman of Bengal, of High Rank, in Full Dress. . 24

Volume of the Shasters Avritten on Palm Leaf. . ^ 26 Columns of a Temple at BaroUi. . . . '28

Sculptured Niche in a Temjjle at Barolli. ... 30

Nasink, a celebrated Place of Pilgrimage. ... 32

Vishnu reposing upon his Serpent Couch. ... 36

Ganesa, the God of Wisdom . . . 36

Hindu Woman of the Brahmin Caste. . . 38

Shiva and his Consort, Parvati. ... .... 62

Forms of Shiva from Hindu Sculptures. . . .52

The Goddess Luckshme. . . . . ... 54

The Goddess Kali . . 54

The God of Wisdom, Dancing Girl, and Musicians 56

Portrait of Juggernaut. .... 56

A Ba-yee, or Dancing Boy. ... 68

The Great Temple of Juggernaut at Puri. .... 68

An Idol Manufactory. 70

An Idol Merchant and his Wares. . . . . ... 72

Dancing in Celebration of the Durga Festival 80

1 16

E NGR AVINGS.

Temple of Shiva, at Tanjore , 90

Temple of KaL', near Calcutta . . 90

Mohammedan Mendicant singing and playing on a Timbrel. ... 94

Mohammedan of Bengal, of High Eank, in Full Dress 96

Mohammedan Woman of Bengal, of High Rank, in Full Dress. . 96

Sudden Overflow of the Ganges 98

Junction of the Ganges and Jumna. . ... . . . 100

The Sick immersed in the Ganges. ... . . .... 100

Two Portraits 104

Temple near Allahabad . . 104

Tank and Pepul Trees in the Suburbs of Benares. . . 106

Pavilion over the Sacred Well in Benares. . . .... 106

Columns of a Temple in Benares. ... ... 106

Interior of a Temple in Benares dedicated to the Sacred Ox. . . 108

An Infant Victim of Superstition .110

Transformation of a Woman into an EvU Spirit. ....... 110

Interior of an Ancient Cave Temple near Adjunta. ... .115

Portrait of a Devotee who had been standing Eight Years. 124

Portrait of a Devotee whose Arm was constantly elevated. . . 126

Parsee Woman of Bombay, of High Rank, in Full Dress. . . . 128

Entrance to one of the Cave Temples at EUora . 132

A Thug disguised as a Merchant . 140

Nose Jewel and Bracelet. ..... . . . . . 166

Coolie Chief. 204

CooUe Soldier. . . ... . . . 206

Interior of a European Bungalow. .... . ... 226

The Great Minaret at Delhi . . .230

Fort of Allahabad .234

View on the Ganges 240

Mohammedan Military Officer of High Rank 246

View of Delhi from the River, showing the King's Palace. . . 250

Baber, the Founder of the Great Mogul Empire 262

INDIA AND ITS INHABITANTS.

Chapter I

India. — Its Extent and Popitlation. — General Appearance OF ITS Inhabitants. — Their Costumes. — Ornaments. — Food. — Peculiar Customs at Meals. — Habitations. — Methods of Travelling. — Choultries, or Inns. — Attachment to ancient Customs. — Village Government. — Shastees or Sacred Books. — Creation of Man, and Institution of Caste, as related in the Shasters. — Incidents illustrating the pernicious Influence of Caste. — Sitting in Dherna. — The Hindus a religious People. — Three Hundred and Thirty Millions of Gods. — Their Character. — Hideous Forms of the Images by which they are represented. — Effects produced upon the Minds of their Worshippers.

India has from the earliest historic period been justly regarded with great interest. Here vast and powerful empires sprang up and flourished while Europe was in a state of barbarism. More than two thousand years before Christianity shed its light upon the world, India had become the land of science and the arts. At the present time, however, its prominent characteristics are ignorance, poverty, and superstition.

3 (17)

EXTENT — POPULATION — CLIMATE.

That portion of India usually denominated Hindustan, or India within the Ganges, is a large peninsula projecting into the Indian Ocean, south-west of the Chinese empire, from which it is separated by the Himalaya Mountains. With a territory one third as large as Europe, it is supposed to contain a population of one hundred and fifty millions, or more inhabitants than England, Scotland, Ireland, Russia, and the continent of America.

India, being of vast extent, and containing elevated table-lands, and extensive rangefe of mountains, affords a climate ranging from the arid heat of a vertical sun to the inhospitable and freezing atmosphere of the bleak and frigid north. In the province of Bengal and the northern jparts of Hindustan, the year is divided into the hot, the rainy, and the temperate seasons. The hot weather commences in March, and continues until June ; the rains continue, with short interruptions, from June to October ; and the temperate season is from October to February.

The inhabitants of India are of various dissimilar races, differing materially in stature, complexion, manners, language, religion, and general character. The Rajputs and mountaineers of the north are large and of great muscular strength, while the inhabitants farther south are generally of small stature and of slender form. In complexion they vary from a dark olive approaching to black, to a light, transparent, beautiful brown, resembling that of the natives of Northern Italy.

About the year 1000 India was invaded by the Mohamm6dans, who, by a long series of the most

Interior of a Dvvellinjj at mealtiiiuB.

COSTUME — ORNAMENTS — FOOD.

ferocious and cruel wars, established the Great Mogul empire. This vast empire, and other exteuvsive countries in Asia, have within the last hundred years been annexed to the British dominions. The descendants of the Mohammedans are estimated at fifteen millions, and are scattered among the Hindu population throughout the peninsula. In their general appearance they resemble their pagan neighbors, and are not their superiors either in intelligence or in morality.

All classes of the natives are fond of ornaments, such as rings in the nose and ears, with bracelets on the arms and ankles ; yet their dress is exceedingly simple. Though the Turkish costume has to a limited extent been introduced by the Mohammedans, the usual style of dress is the original Hindu, which for the male consists of two pieces of cotton cloth, each containing about two yards. The one, called the dhotee, is girt about the loins, and extends, to the ankles. The other, called the chadder^ is worn over the shoulders. The dress of the female is called a saree, and consists of a single piece of cloth of from four to seven yards. One end of this piece is wrapped around the loins, the width reaching to the feet ; the other is gracefully thrown around the shoulders. In some parts of the country it also covers the head. The children wear no clothing until they are from five to eight years of age ; but they are frequently decorated with ornaments and jew^els of considerable value.

The food of the Hindus, with but few exceptions, is vegetable. The use of animal food is denied them

MANNER OP EATING — DWELLINGS.

by their religion, unless the animals be first sacrificed to some idol. The wife is never permitted to eat with her husband, but waits upon him in the capacity of a servant, and afterwards partakes of the fragments in retirement. At their meals they use neither tables, chairs, knives, forks, nor spoons. They sit upon the floor, and put the food into the mouth with the fingers of the right hand. They take their drink from a brass cup, which they never touch with the lips, but pour the liquid into the mouth. Fermented and distilled liquors are used only by the lowest castes ; but the use of tobacco is almost universal, and here, as elsewhere, has a most pernicious influence. Many of both sexes chew betel, a drug more filthy, if possible, than tobacco itself

Most of the Hindu dwellings are rude huts, about eighteen feet long and twelve wide. The walls are built of mud, and the roof is thatched with straw or with the leaves of the palm. In cities, however, and in large villages, to prevent damage by fire, tiles are used instead of thatch. The cost of such dwellings varies from five to twenty dollars, according to the size and manner of finish. About one house in a thousand' is built of durable materials, such as brick or stone. In cities they may be found from two to four stories high. These have flat roofs, and are built around a court or open space in the centre. In some houses the court is very large, and is decorated with fountains, trees, and flowering shrubs. Most of the windows open into the court. As Hindu dwellings have few or no windows towards the street, they appear like prisons; and, in some respects, they are

Interior of a first class stone House in Benares, The further apartment is one of the domestic chapels described at p. 21.

SECLUSION OP FEMALES — DOMESTIC CHAPELS. 21

prisons, for within their walls the females are incarcerated for life. Such is the jealousy of their husbands, that they are never to be seen in the streets, nor in any public assembly. It is only the higher class, however, who are kept thus secluded ; among Ijbe common people, women are to be seen at work in the fields, or going to market with large bundles of wood, or other heavy burdens, borne upon the head.

In some of the best houses in the city of Benares, there is a small apartment used only for religious purposes. Upon an altar, or shrine, are several images of silver, brass, or marble, and two or more fossil ammonites. The utensils used in worship are a large and a small conch shell, the one to be sounded like a horn, and the other to be used in lading water and pouring it over the images ; one large and one small boai^shaped copper vessel, supposed to be emblems of Noah's ark; two or three brass plates, a fivebranched candlestick, a bell, gong, hautboy, drum, and cymbals.

In the employment of the family is a gooroo, or pundit, who gives the benedictions and absolutions, and also serves as a teacher for the children; a priest, who performs the ceremonies of marriage, and the worship of the manes, &c.; and a poojeree, or under priest, who goes through the ordinary routine of worship in the domestic sanctuary. He presents daily offerings of rice, flowers, and incense to the idols, cleans their altars, cooks their dinner, and makes their bed. Each member of the family is expected to repair morning and evening to the sanctuary, to

METHODS OP TRAVELLING — CHOULTRIES.

offer up his own petitions; and those who do not bathe by the river side perform their ablutions in this apartment, a division being made for that purpose.

With but few exceptions there are no roads in India ; consequently wheel carriages are seldom used. Most of the natives perform their journeys on foot ; but the usual method of travelling for Europeans, and others who can afford the expense, is in a vehicle called a palanquin, which is borne upon the shoulders of men. The usual number of bearers is eight. Four of these carry the palanquin thirty or forty rods ; then the others take it upon their shoulders ; thus, alternately, they relieve each other. Besides the bearers, several other men are employed to carry the baggage, and to bear lighted torches by night. The bearers and other assistants are changed once in about ten miles, or as often as stage-drivers change their horses. The traveller proceeds on his journey from seventy to ninety miles in twenty-four hours, at an expense of about twenty-five cents per mile.

For the purpose of procuring the praise of men and the favor of the gods, rajahs and other opulent natives have, in many of the large towns, built choultries, or inns, for the gratuitous accommodation of travellers. The choultry of Rajah Trimal Naig, at Madura, consists of one vast hall, three hundred and twelve feet long, and one hundred and twenty-five wide. The ceiling is supported by six rows of columns twenty-five feet high. The entire edifice is composed of a hard, gray granite, and every part of its f?urface is elaborately carved into representations of cows, monkeys, tigers, lions, elephants, men, women, giants, gods, and monsters.

A Hindu of Bengal, of high rank, in full dress.

ATTACHMENT TO ANCIENT CUSTOMS.

Choultries generally have but one apartment, and are entirely destitute of furniture of every kind. The ground, beaten hard, and covered with lime cement, serves as a floor, which at night is strewed with travellers of all classes and of both sexes, wrapped separately in their various-colored cotton cloths, and lying side by side, like so many bales of merchandise in a warehouse.

Should a Hindu be asked why his countrymen do not have roads, wheel carriages, and furnished hotels, his reply would be, ^ It is not our custom." He believes that the customs of his forefathers, civil, social, and religious, were instituted by the gods, and are therefore incapable of improvement. The effect of this belief is to keep every thing stationary. There is no progress in knowledge — no change for the better in any department in life. The fashion of dress, the form of agricultural and mechanical instruments, the manner of erecting habitations, and the performance of various kinds of labor, are the same now as they were thousands of years ago. This fact may be illustrated by an anecdote. An English gentleman devised various plans of introducing improvements ; among others, he wished to substitute wheelbarrows for the baskets in which the natives carry burdens on their heads. He caused several of these useful articles to be constructed, and labored with much assiduity to introduce them among his workmen. In his presence they used them with apparent cheerfulness, and even admitted that they were far preferable to the baskets. The gentleman was delighted with his success. On one occasion, however, having been

VILLAGE GOVERNMENT.

absent a few hours, on returning somewhat unexpectedly, he was surprised to find all his laborers carrying the wheelbarrows, filled with earth, on their heads.

Most of the rural inhabitants of India live in villages, and with the exception of those districts which have long enjoyed the security conferred by British rule, each village is surrounded by a high, thick wall of mud. The houses are closely grouped together, without regard to order, cleanliness, or free circulation of air ; and at night the cattle, which are numerous, are brought within the village walls. Each of these municipalities has its head man, or potail, its accountant, tax-gatherer, astrologer, and watchman ; and besides these are often included the poet, schoolmaster, irrigator, blacksmith, joiner, barber, goldsmith, washerman, potter, and dancing girl. Every family belonging to the village has its own particular occupation, or specific office, traditionally entailed upon it through successive generations. The land cultivated is regarded as the property of the supreme government, for which a rent is paid in kind, amounting to about one half the crop. The lands seldom change their boundaries or their occupants. While their village system remains entire, they care little about the revolutions of empires, or to what sovereign their lands are transferred. The patriotism of the Hindu extends no farther than the boundaries of his own village.