The Shores of Lake Aral ... With maps

Front matter

THE SHORES OF LAKE ARAL. BY HERBERT WOOJX, MAJOR, ROYa\L ENGINEERS . / /"* FELLOW OF THE ROYAL AND OF THE IMPERIAL RUSSIAN GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETIES CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE SOCIETY OF GEOGRAPHY OF GENEVA. ' We were the first that ever burst Into that silent sea,'' — Coleridge, Ancient Mariner. ffittitfe gtaps. LONDON: SMITH, ELDER, & CO., 15 WATERLOO PLACE. 1S76. \AU rights retcr-jc,i.\ TO CHARLOTTE and ATHENAIS de BODISCO i_jris is I'nstribb BY THEIR OBLIGED FRIEND AND SERVANT, THE AUTHOR

Preface

. ' Le continent de t'Asie, a ses extremites du slid ct du nord, off re deux vastes empires sou mis a la domination europ'eenne. C'cstcomme deux mondes. . . . C'cst le monde angloindou et le monde russe siberien, aussi d iff emits par la nature des climats et des productions que par Petal de culture, la richcsse et la densite de leur population. Ces deux grandes masses ou divisions ne communique/it depuis des siecles, que par les basses regions de la Bactriane, je pourrais dire par Ia depression du sol qui entoure I Aral et le bord oriental de la Caspicnne entre Balkh et Astrabad, comtne entre Tashkent et I'isthme de Troukhmhies. C'esl une bande de terrains en parlie i/is-fertiles, a travers laquclle F Oxus a trace son cours. . . . C'est le cliemin de Dclhy, de Lahore et de Kaboul a Khiva et d Orenbourg, la grande route par laquelle la puissance mongole a penetre pad is dans Tlnde . . .

Les regions que nous signalons ici peuvent ctre envisagees comme voie de communications paisibles ou d' invasions hostiles et progres sives far stations.' — Humboldt, ' Asie Centrale.' The country spoken of in this passage, and included in the geographical expression West Turkestan, presents perhaps the greatest number of interesting points that could be found collected in any one single locality for the consideration of mankind. From the remotest ages, across these regions led the track

PREFACE.

. VIII which was followed by irruptions of Turanians, as they continually advanced from the far north-east, and pushed primitive Aryan races before them into Europe. From the south-west Egyptians, Assyrians or Medes, Persians, Greeks or Arabs, have passed as conquerors at different epochs into the regions Avatered by the Oxus and Jaxartes ; while the creeds of Zoroaster and Buddha and Mohammed have successively agitated the breasts of their populations. Though the earliest historical records inform us how solitude and sterility were the marked characteristics of North- Avestern Asia, there are certain indications of a preA.ous local civilisation and culture, Avhich Avere ovenvhelmed by the devastating torrent of perpetually encroaching barbarism ; and such dim testimonies to a pre-his toric state gain form and substance daily from ob servation of the signs that are graven on the face of Nature herself.

These promise revelations fully as important perhaps as those Avhich have been deciphered on the monuments of Egypt and of Assyria ; for it Avould be difficult to define the limits of the lesson that is involved in a thorough study of the desolation of the Khwarezmian deserts, and the past action of mankind by Avhich it Avas caused.

PREFACE.

. IX Besides the general human interests that are presented by the present aspects of West Turkestan, and connected more specially Avith bygone times, there are others Avhich bear on the future ; which are comprised in the extension of Russian rule in one part of Asia and the continued development of British power in another part. The eventual de thronement of degrading superstition, and the increase of material Avell-being among the millions of India, find their counterpart in the preliminary work of civilisation that lies before Russia in the Oxus countries — a Avork Avhich involves the re-establishment of disturbed terraqueous harmonies, and the restoration of immense Avildernesses to productive ness and fitness for ministering to the Avants of mankind. Having been graciously accorded permission by H. I. H. the Grand Duke Constantine, the Presi dent, to accompany an expedition sent under the auspices of the Imperial Russian Geographical Society to examine the Amudarya, I had the opportunity of passing several months of the year 1874 in the countries round Lake Aral. In the folloAving pages I have submitted to my readers a rlstmic of the information relating to these localities,

PREFACE.

. X Avhose future development has been regarded more exclusively from the stand-point of the change that may be effected in their superficial geography, and that is urgently called for by the social and political necessities of Russia, in presence of the impoverished resources of West Turkestan. I haA'e endeavoured to present a faithful picture of regions Avhose sterile character thrusts such impediments in the way of Central Asian progress ; Avhile the hydraulic phenomena presented by the rivers have been treated of in some detail, since their study throAvs light on the curious physical history of the a\ralo- Caspian region. Though I can but express a regret that these difficult and interesting problems have not here found a more competent expositor, a solution has been submitted which is founded on personal observation, as Avell as on the more complete knoAv ledge recently acquired by Russian exploration.

I should add that great obligations are due to Pro fessor M. J. De Goeje, ofthe University of Leyden, lvho in a recent work on the ancient channel of the Oxus,1 very considerately published several important passages from early Arabian geographers, in order that the information obtained by the Amii 1 Das alte Bett des Oxus. Leiden : E. J. Brill. 1875.

PREFACE.

. XI expedition of 1874, might be more easily and ex peditiously utilised. It is not to be supposed that all the difficulties attaching to such much debated questions are thoroughly disposed of in the folloAving pages.1 All I can hope is that some contribution Avill be found to have been made to previously existent knoAvledge, Avhile firmer ground has been indicated from Avhence a fresh advance may be made toAvards the ultimate solution of the problems involved. The Russian annexation of the Amudarya territory promises to mark the commencement of an entirely new era in the history of Turkestan ; for though the control of the river may not carry Avith it all those advantages of a great line of Avater-com munication Avhich Burnes some forty years ago predicted, and which Russia herself anticipated, it is not the less certain that the moral and material regeneration of Central Asia are dependent on the stream of the ancient Oxus.

In semi-tropical regions a great river may be employed for more important ends than those of navigation, and flow- 1 This remark applies more particularly to the supposed former passage of the Oxus waters by the bed of the Attrek, which is spoken of in Chapter

PREFACE.

. XII ing as they now do, nortrnvards to Lake Aral, along the higher limits of the Klvwarezmian plain the Avaters of the Amii may be artificially conducted doAvn the slope of the country by canals of irrigation, towards the drainage line Avhich Avas folloAved by the river in antique times, to its outlet in the Caspian Sea. In this way a belt of desert country maybe re claimed, and settled, industrious populations may once more be established upon broad lands, from Avhence the ancestors of European peoples Avere expelled by barbarian hordes. Impassable solitudes may become a great commercial higliAvay into the now isolated regions of Central Asia, and the cause of pro gress be thus importantly served. The first steps have already been taken for the diffusion of light in these dark places of the earth, for Humanity owes to Russia the cessation of brigandage and slavery, Avhich from the earliest historical times have been the scourges of the Oxus countries.

But a more tangible reward Avould result from the restoration of the Avilds of Turkestan. It Avould be for the benefit of Russia more particularly, Avere the deserts south of Khiva changed into productive cotton-fields, and into a habitable territory across Avhich the ancient silk trade, that Avas destroyed by Mohammedan

PREFACE.

. XIII fanaticism, might once more be established between Europe and Central Asia. Such, speaking generally, appears to be the promise of the study contained in the follow ing pages ; and though opinion in England leans daily more and more to the better part of sympa thising Avith Russia in her struggle with Asiatic barbarism, to the British people above all others must her progress in the East be one of the most momen tous of questions. Hoav the contact of the two great European Powers that must inevitably take place in Asia, may be affected by a possible reclamation of the deserts round Khiva, is consequently an enquiry Avhich immediately presents itself for discussion. I should be as presumptuous as I am little qualified, were I to attempt to treat this subject ; but there are some weighty considerations that show such a pro ject Avould be the opposite of detrimental to the interests of British India.

In the first place, it is to be noted that the possible development Avould take place in localities at a considerable distance from those deserts round Merv, Avhere recent Russian movements have threatened to precipitate a discussion of the difficult boundary question betAveen the two nations. It might PREF A CE. XIV not perhaps be entirely unreasonable to think, that the possession of a belt of cultivated and inhabited territory, extending directly from the Caspian to the valleys of the Zarafshan and Syrdarya, Avould nullify the need now felt by Russia, of re-establishing the old Seric commercial route from the loAver Attrek along the northern frontiers of Khorassan. Thus the question of Russian boundaries on the Perso- Affghan frontier might be ultimately sohred in a satisfactory Avay to both PoAvers.

The opportunity moreover AA-hich Avould be afforded by the reclamation of the Khwarezmian deserts for the settlement of the most barbarous of the Turkoman tribes, would remove one great cause of uneasiness Avhich is common to the statesmen both of England and of Russia ; Avhile the civilising current passing through the reclaimed country Avould infallibly act upon neighbouring countries, Avhose geographical position renders them inaccessible to peaceful in fluences from Hindustan. Nor is it improbable that the national unity and sympathy Avith progress Avhich British statesmen are endeaA'ourinoto realise amonsr the chiefs and tribes on the north-Avest frontier of India, Avould receive a felicitous impulse from the enormous material benefits Avhich promise to accrue to

PREFACE.

. XV Central Asian peoples. The hitherto disquieting vagueness of Russian intentions in South-Western Asia Avould vanish before a pronounced policy of pacification and the application of her energies to the commercial development of the Central Asian Khanates ; Avhile the stereotyped tradition which is glanced at in the passage from Humboldt heading these prefatory remarks, and which has regarded the regions of the Oxus as mere stepping-stones for more southerly invasions, would, if not entirely inverted, be very materially modified, along Avith the transformation of physical aspects that have hitherto rendered these deserts unproductive and uninhabitable. The fatuous dream that history might repeat itself, and that the British India of to-day might be overrun as the Gangetic plains formerly Avere by Mongol hordes, has all but vanished before the more sober and practical ideas of the present time.

Russians themselves may be pardoned the contem plation of such a project, since Englishmen allowed this nightmare to possess them ; though the calmer heads of our OAvn people and the wiser spirits avIio have led Russia in the march of progress may Avell have regretted the perversity of the mass of

PREFACE.

. XVI mankind. At the present important epoch in the history of England in Asia it is a fortunate circum stance perhaps, that several intelligent Russians should be travelling in Hindustan ; for Avhatever shortcomings their critical eyes may note, they will at least be able to enlighten their countrymen on the true bases of Anglo-Indian supremacy. Weighed doAvn by gigantic armaments, the result of appre hension on the European frontier, the Russian population commences to realise that a military restlessness Avhich daily and appreciably adds to financial burdens must give place to a policy of commercial develop ment in Central Asia : Avhile in danger of being entirely supplanted in the corn trade by America, the encouragement of cotton and silk production in regions .specially adapted for such industries is more urgently pressed upon their notice, as a sheet-anchor in possible future commercial storms.

The magnitude and practical difficulties attaching to such a project Avill doubtless demand the utmost and undivided energy of Russia for ensuring its success. But such a recurrence to the original commercial schemes of Peter the Great must inevitably accentuate a peace policy in the East, as well as necessitate a close approximation to England's earnest desire

PREFACE.

. XVII for the undisturbed rest which will assure the continuous development of European civilisation in Asia. In conclusion, therefore, there are good grounds for thinking that a reclamation of the portion of the deserts which lie between the Caspian Sea and the Amiidarya would be to the benefit of both the PoAvers whose influence is paramount in Asia. In the succeeding pages it will be shoAvn that such a restoration can be made ; for the facts Avhich are adduced, together with the information Avhich has been collected from historical records, can scarcely fail to lead the reader to this conclusion. And interesting as such a result may be, its im portance perhaps is still greater, for it might serve as a basis of arrangements for ensuring that the future contact of Russian and Anglo-Indian frontiers shall take place in the peaceful and ordinary manner of civilised Christian nations. H. W. a CONTENTS.

Chapter I. Samara To Orsk

The river Volga and its importance to Russia — Great towns upon its banks — Their growing wealth — A riverside morning scene — The route into Asia — Orenburg — Ural Cossacks — Progress in the east of Russia — Ural valley to Orsk — Characteristics of population, towns, and villages from the Volga eastwards to Orsk — Spartan simplicity in Russia . PAGE I

Chapter II

samara to orsk — continued. The steppes east of the Volga — Gloominess in winter — Their bareness of timber — Inconveniences of post route — Streams and rotten bridges — Delays at ferries — Peasant superstitions — Mud in villages — Post-house — Travellers met — Imperial portraits — Image of saint — Village churches— Piety and superstition — Saints' days — Vodka-drinking — National intemperance — Hand-swipe for raising water — Bird-cots — Debateable ground between Europe and Asia . 13

Chapter III. Orsk To Irgeez

Russian indifference to time — Tarantasse journeys — Hardships of early days of travel into Turkestan— Improvements of present day a _ CONTENTS. XX —Government couriers and Kirghiz jiggits— The Bashkirs— The Kirghiz steppe — Country from Orsk to Karaboutak and Irgeez — Its possible physical amelioration — Advantages to Russia of the nomadic state of the Kirghiz in these localities in particular, and generally in West Turkestan PAGE 26

Chapter IV. The Aralian Steppe

The depressed tract round Lake Aral — Its separation from the Valley of the Obi —The overflow of its basin — The pre-historic Mediterranean, which included the Black, the Caspian, and Aral Seas — Deserts north of Aral — Postal arrangements across them — Horses and camels — Traffic en route — Kirghiz on the move — Their regulated wanderings — The arundo of the Aralo-Caspian region — Its importance on local physical phenomena . ■ 38

Chapter V. Early Russo-asian Policy

First commerce between Russia and Central Asia — Englishmen engaged in this trade — The brigandage of the Kirghiz hordes — Necessity of extirpating it, and of preserving frontier tribes under domination of Russia — Flight of the Volga Calmuks — Submission of Kirghiz — Divide et impera policy with frontier tribes — The Bashkir rebellion — The Kirghiz opposed to this people — Eventual subjugation of Kirghiz and pacification of Asiatic frontier 50

Chapter VI. The Russians On The Syr-darya

Comparative fertility of the banks of the Syr— Cultivation and aspects of country — Buildings on the steppe— Failures of colonists— Cazalinsk— Fort Peroffsky— Revenue of Turkestan— Population of Central Asia— The Kirghiz of the Syr-darya — Comfortable circumstances and general improvement of their condition — Their relations with the Russians — Influence of races of Turkestan on Russian culture . . .63 CONTENTS. XXI

Chapter VII

the Russians on the syr-darya — continued. Early summer on the banks of the Syr — Cazalinsk, or Fort No. I — Its streets, houses, and bazaar — A Russian battalion — Characteristics of Turkestan troops — Religious and patriotic feeling — Dress — Numbers — Infantry — Artillery — Cossack cavalry — Sailors of Aral flotilla — Military alertness in Turkestan .... page 76

Chapter VIII. The Syr-darya

Attenuation of Syr in its lower course— Flow of Syr or Jaxartes — The plain on the east of Aral — Probable ancient course of Syr — Present terminations of the rivers Chuy, Sary-Su, and Talass — The changes of outlets of the Syr — The Jani-darya and other historical arms of the river — The Asiatic Tanais of Alexander — Facility for changing course of Syr — Possible causes of the physical aspects of the Kizzelkoom deserts — Influences of human action upon surface of the earth 88

Chapter IX. The Basin Of Lake Aral

Inconvenient navigation of the Syr — Its deterioration as a navigable channel — The Aral flotilla — Saksaoul and coal fuel — Banks of river below Cazalinsk — Population — Cultivation — Aspects of lower courses and mouth of Syr — Kos Aral — Appearance of Aral — Description of the basin — Area — Depths — Evidence of fall in the surface of the lake — The conditions of its intermittence and actual existence — Its overflow and entire desiccation . . .102 CONTENTS.

Chapter X. The Aralo-caspian Sea

The Asiatic Mediterranean — Its escape towards the Frozen Ocean — Reconstruction of this Sea — Opening of the Bosphorus — Consequent separation of the Black, Caspian, and Aral basins — Junction between the Aral and Caspian by overflow of the former — Consequent aspects of Aralo-Caspian Sea — Existence of this depended upon surface of water in Aral basin — Variations of rivers feeding Aral caused intermittence of overflow . . PAGE 116

Chapter XI. The Caspian Of History

Herodotus on the Caspian — Flooding of country between Lake Aral and the Caspian — Outlets of northern arm of Araxe — Strabo, Pomponius Mela, and Pliny on the Caspian — Arrian and Quintus Curtius — Chinese knowledge of the Caspian — The water of the Sea — Ammian Marcelline and Menander on Lake Aral — Flow of rivers from Lake Aral to the Caspian — Jenkinson's Gulf of the Caspian — ■ European maps showing a knowledge of Lake Aral — Olearius on shape of the Caspian — The Lake of Kitay of Herberstein, Jenkinson, &c. — European knowledge of isolation of Lake Aral . 129

Chapter XII. The Central Outlet Of The Amu-darva

The south shore of Lake Aral — Saltness and colour of water — Earthy matter carried down by river— False bottom of the Lake— The three lower arms of the river — Shallowing of south shore— The Kichkine mouth— Process of formation of its delta — The banks of the Kichkine-darya — Karakalpak pasturages and cattle — Akkala, the ' white fort ' — Its engagement with the ' Samarcand' in 1873— Mooring of steamers at night on river's bank— The Ulkun-darya — The Karakalpaks of the Lower Amu CONTENTS. XXIII

Chapter XIII. The Lower Amu-darya

The Amii-darya has no delta — The river between Khodjeili and Kungrad — The Abougir Gulf — Kungrad — Taldyk — The Ulkun-darya — Tumalaktao — Burying on hills, an important characteristic in the Oxus countries — Cultivation near the Ulkun — Its' deterioration as a navigable arm — Tendency of Amii to pass by eastern arm — Kuw£n-jerma — Kigailie — Town of Cimbye — Bi-weekly fair — Cultivation — Fields and Homesteads — Description of a homestead of the Oxus countries PAGE 159

Chapter XIV

the lower amij-darya — continued. The desert east of Kuwin-jerma — Canals from the Kizzel-darya — Lake Dowkara — The Belitao hills — Yany-Su — Changes since 1859 in this channel and in Dowkara — Causes of these — The closing of the Loudon canal — Method resorted to by Oriental rulers for overawing feudatories since remote antiquity — Consequences of closing of Loudon — The Central Amu channels — Chertambye — Tullabye — Oguz — The story of Prince Bekovitch- — Introduction of order and civilisation by Russia in Turkestan 171

Chapter XV. The Central Amu Swamps

The lake district and the northern outlets of the Araxe of Herodotus — The central depression of the lower Amii — The whirlpools- Lakes and connecting channels — The Kashkanatao hills — Former water-level of Aral — The Karakalpaks — Their poverty — Poor pastures — Agriculture — Locusts — Fisheries — Mosquitoes — Karakalpak traits — Russian policy with Turkestan races — The leperwoman — Kirghiz on Lower Amii — Ethnic affinities of Russia with Asia CONTENTS. XXIV

Chapter XVI. Characteristics Of The Amu

The first sight ofthe Amii-darya— Its banks from Khodjeili to Toyouboyin — Breadths of the river — The deep channel — Current of river — Process of change going on in the channel — Illustration of this from M. AT_mbdry's description ofthe Amii in 1863 — The aspects of the channel at high flood and subsequent to a fall in level — Phenomena of flow of the Oxus — Tendency to re-establish conditions disturbed by Man — Inability of population to control the flow of the Amii — Future change .... PAGE 199

Chapter XVII. The Amu In Khiva

The Amii-darya course from Lake Victoria — How it waters the Khwarezmian desert — Its volume — Khiva a gift of the Amii — Water used in irrigation ofthe oasis — Slope from river to the west — The canals of Khiva — Their action in causing change in the flow of the Amii — Cultivation of the oasis — Revenue of Khiva from land and other sources — Population — Facilities for settling the wandering Turkomans ofthe Khwarezmian desert . . 209

Chapter XVIII. The Last Change In The Oxus

The old beds of Doudon and Kunya-darya-lik — The Uzboy channel of the Oxus — Arzass, Amii, and Oguz of the Great Russian Map — The dams on the old courses — Improbability of the change of the Amii having been caused by these dams — Evidence from Abulghazi Khan — Details of last change in flow of Amii, from Anthony Jenkinson and Abulghazi Khan — River enters Aral, some years after 1604 — Presumption that present Amii-darya was formerly an irrigation canal, and that Aral was filled up by the waters of the Oxus subsequent to Jenkinson's day CONTENTS. XXV

Chapter XIX. Russia On The Amu

The village of Niikiis and the new Russian fort — Petro Alexandroskiya — Military life on the Amii — The new Russian territory — Population — Revenue — Possible improvement — Trade— Old Russian slaves— The Amii as a navigable stream — The Yany Su and Kuw&n-jerma — The upper courses— Descent of river by a steamer — Native boats on the Amii — Isolation of Amii district from the Syr-darya — Project of filling the Jani-darya — Objections to such an enterprise PAGE 239

Chapter XX. The Banks Of The Amu

The river from Khodjeili to Bend — The Bishtubye ridge — Syed-attaauliya — Nogai Kala — View of Kizzelkoom — Miskan-atta — Nazi- Khan — Tower of the Jinn — Kipchak -College of Niyazbye — Instances of the crossing of the Amii on the ice, recently and in old times — The Governor of Kipchak — His Kirghiz attendant — Ruling minorities and ruled majorities 252

Chapter XXI

the banks OF the ami? — continued. The Amii between Kipchak and Shaikhjaili — The Shaikhjaili hills — Action of stream on the right bank — The continuation of Bishtubye above Shaikhjaili — The Khivan oasis — The Russian bank — ShahbizwaK — Shurakhan — The river at Tunuklu — The Valley of the Lion's Mouth — Sultan Serai — The island of Aralchi-baba-auliya — Toyuboyin 262

Chapter XXII. The Ancient Oxus

The countries of the Oxus and the early Aryans — Agriculture in Western Asia, from semi-mythic times — The Persian domination — Deserts east of Caspian since antiquity — Deposits of sand by b CONTENTS. XXVI Oxus waters — Primary flow of Oxus — Northern arms of the Araxe — The Tchardjui-Balkhan course — The Attrek course- Causes of Parthian strength — Change of Oxus towards Hyrcania —Change to the Aral outlet page 273

Chapter XXIII. Khwarezm And The Jyhun

The ancient territory of Chorasmia — The change of the Oxus to an outlet in Lake Aral — The founding of Khwarezm — The Jyhiin from Tchardjui northwards — The passage of Zemark and Hiouen Thsang along the Jyhiin — The towns, canals, and cultivation in Khwarezm according to the early Arabs — Kath the first capital — Evidence of a change in the flow of the Jyhiin in the tenth century — Al-Djordjanija the second capital of Khwarezm . . 291

Chapter XXIV

khwarezm and the jyhun — continued. The dam on the canal at Al-Djordjdnija — Destruction of the town in the thirteenth century — Evidence from Arab geographers of fluctuations in the flow of the Oxus, from the tenth to the sixteenth century — The river Arzass of the great Russian map — Proof from Balkhi'-Istakhrf that the Jyhiin bifurcated in the tenth century — General proposition that from this date some portion of the river reached the Caspian by Uzboy at different epochs — The difficulty of a continuous flow down this course of the Jyhiin . . 305

Chapter XXV. The Steppes Of Turkestan

The Turkoman chief, Atta Murdd Khan— The Kirghiz Safar— Kirghiz and Turkoman horses— Hard conditions of life both for man and horse — Climate— Cold Polar winds — Heat — Dryness— Dew- Rain— The kibitka of Asia— Kirghiz shepherds of Kizzelkoom— The safety of the desert at the present day— Fitness of Russia for civilising Central Asia . . . . . . , .317 CONTENTS. XXVII

Chapter XXVI

A RIDE ACROSS THE KIZZELKOOM. Country east of Cimbye — Canal of Piir Khan — Fort at Kaleech-kala — The Kirghiz chief Nazr Khdn — Baggage animals — The Belitao hills — The low ground beyond them — Ancient lake in this depressed furrow — Present aspect of country — Evidence of volcanic upheaval — Caravans and shepherds — Buzganak — A comfortless bivouac — Reflections round a camp-fire in the Kizzelkoom PAGE 32S

Chapter XXVII

a ride across the kizzelkoom — continued. Buzganak to Shuwakbye — Desiccation of steppe on east ofthe Belitao — Kirghiz at Shuwakbye — Kouktchatengis — Old mouths of Jaxartes, Syr, and Kizzel-darya — Course of Jdni-darya — Mosques and Mausolea — Old fort at Chirchiktash — Irkibye — Kirghiz of Lower Syr — Ferry at Fort Peroffsky — Conclusion .... 340 MAPS. West Turkestan and adjoining Countries: in pocket of cover The Lower Arms of the AmiJ-darya . . to face p. Errata. Page 36, line 20, for of Syr read of the Syr ,, 6S, ,, 3, delete north of the Syr ,, 224, ,, 20, for Reynolds read Thompson >. 334. >> 2, delele tml " ssw' rcad SSE'

Chapter I. Samara To Orsk

The river Volga and its importance to Russia — Great towns upon its banks — Their growing wealth — A riverside morning scene — The route into Asia — Orenburg — Ural Cossacks — Progress in the east of Russia — Ural valley to Orsk — Characteristics of population, towns, and villages from the Volga eastwards to Orsk — Spartan simplicity in Russia. The European railways, which run half-Avay across the four thousand miles of plain extending from Holland to Chinese Zungaria, come to an end for the present on the Volga. From Samara, on the Volga's left bank, commences the postal service, Avhich carries the traveller into Turkestan. It Avas in May, Avhen the snows of Avinter had all but dis appeared, and when the waters of the great river and its affluents rolled along in high flood, that I was first at Samara.

The town is also situated on the river of the same name where it joins the Volga B aster floAving down from the steppes on the east, and the Samara Avas submerging the low-lying buildings at the time of my visit. The drainage, Avhich at the close of Avinter is poured into the Volga by its large and numerous tributaries, is something enormous, as may be gathered from the fact that in spring its surface is about thirty feet higher than the low-water level, Avhile at some distance beloAV Samara the ordinary breadth of tAvo miles is increased to fifteen ! Its discharge at this epoch is indeed stated to be about one seventh of the Avhole quantity of Avater Avhich floAvs in all the rivers of Europe put together. It Avould be interesting to trace Avhat the civilisation of Europe in general, and that of Russia in particular, OAves to the existence of this great stream, which at the present day is navigated by some six hundred steam-boats, and perhaps four times that number of cargo-flats.

The part it has filled in the development of the empire has been a most important one, and as is natural, Russians are as proud of the Volga as Americans can be of the" Mississippi. Martin Chuzzlewit on his way to Eden Avas indeed strongly suggested to me, when a Russian, influenced by a somewhat uneasy patriotism, affirmed that the Indian Ganges must be trespeu de chose in comparison Avith the old Tartar stream ; Avhose excess Avaters, hoAvever, might perhaps be advantageously utilised, like those of the Ganges, for the prevention of droughts, instead of being allowed to run uselessly aAvay and be lost in evaporation from the Caspian Sea. Samara, Saratoff, and other young giant cities on the middle course of the Volga, OAve their birth and their rapid growth to the fertility of the pro vinces in Avhich they are situated.

In addition to the advantages they derive from their riverside position, the prosperity of these places, Avherein the agricultural produce of the surrounding country is collected, has been aided by that development of communications Avhich has made Moscoav the centre of a spider's Aveb of railways. Notwith standing their increasing size and Avealth, they do not present a very inviting aspect on a close inspec tion ; for lacking that halo of historic memories Avhich adds so great a charm to Moscow, the tawdry stucco architecture of their more pretentious buildings, Avhich are scattered among the mean wooden houses of the ill-paved streets, impresses a stranger disagreeably. In one respect, however, they quite satisfy æsthetic requirements, for I knoAV of feAv more glorious spectacles than that presented by these B great Volga toAvns, Avhen the rays of the rising sun pierce through their tender, blue, overhanging haze, and fleck their metal domes and spires Avith dazzling light.