The Mineral Wealth of Canada. A Guide for Students of Economic Geology

Preface

. For several years the author of this book has been giving a short course of lectures to his class in geology on the economic minerals of Canada. While it is not customary to treat this subject so fully in an elementary class, he has felt that in a young undeveloped country like our own, it was highly desirable that all university students should know something of our latent mineral wealth. So, at the expense of Palæontology, much of which is more suitable for an advanced course, time was found for economic geology in the elementary one. To save the labor of dictation, and to make them useful to a larger number, these lecture notes are now published. They have been somewhat extended, to make the subject clearer to the general reader, who has not had any pre liminary training in geology. So far as known, it is the only work giving a systematic account of the mineral resources of the Dominion.

Originality, except in method of treatment, is not claimed. The work is a compilation founded largely on the excellent reports of the Geological Survey of Canada. These bulky volumes and the detailed statements in the reports of the Provincial departments

PREFACE.

. II of mines, while well and favorably known to the specialist, are almost unknown to the general reader, and unsuited for the elementary student. It is hoped that this book will not only prove serviceable itself, but that by its numerous references it will stimulate students to seek fuller information in the reports mentioned. It has not been thought * necessary in a book of this kind to burden it with references to the author whose work has been used. For the most part these works have been cited in the literature at the end of each chapter, but only those books appear which are likely to prove accessible to the student. Special works not usually found in small libraries have been omitted. Some changes have been made in the spelling of chemical terms, as recommended by the Chemical Section of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and as adopted by the " Standard " Dictionary.

The kind assistance of several friends is gratefully ac knowledged. To Dr. Coleman of the School of Practical Science, and to Mr. A. Blue, Director of the Bureau of Mines, the author is particularly indebted. The latter has read the work in proof, and special thanks are due to him for many valuable emendations. Toronto, August 10th, 1897. PAGE ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS. Chapter I. Introduction 7 Comparison of the mineral resources of Canada with those of other countries — Description of rock-forming minerals — Origin of rocks — Kinds of rocks — Relative ages of rocks — Chart of geological time — General literature. Section I.— MINERALS YIELDING METALS. Chapter II. Ore Deposits 21 Definition of ore — Usual combinations of the metals — Classification of ore deposits — Fissure veins — The filling of veins — Surface appearance of ores — Distribution — Erroneous ideas.

Chapter III. Iron, Manganese and Chromium 40 Ores of iron — Impurities — Canadian localities — Pro duction — Literature — Manganese — Chromium. Chapter IV. Nickel and Cobalt 50 Ores — Distribution — Geological occurrence — Uses — Produ ction — Literature. CONTENTS. PAGE 92 Chapter V. Copper and Sulfur •*•*•*•* Ores of copper — Geological occurrence — Canadian localities — History of mining operations — Production in Canada and other countries— Occurrence of sulfur — Uses — Localities where mined. Chapter VI. Gold and Platinum 66 Comparison of Canada with other countries — Origin — Geological occurrence — Methods of milling — Canadian mines — Production. Chapter VII. Silver, Lead and Zinc 81 The ores of silver — Silver mines of Ontario and British Columbia — Production — Lead ores— Canadian mines — Zinc ores — Literature.

Chapter VIII. Arsenic, Antimony, Tin, Aluminum and Mercury . Ores of arsenic — Production in Ontario — Ores of antimony — Mines of New Brunswick — Ores of tin — Ores of aluminum— Occurrence of mercury in Canada. Section II. — MINERALS YIELDING NON- METALLIC PRODUCTS. Chapter IX. Salt, Gypsum and Barite 98 Occurrence of salt — Origin — Localities in Canada — Manufacture — Production — Localities and production of gypsum and barite. CONTENTS. V Chapter X. PAGE Apatite and Mica 112 Geological occurrence and production of apatite— Use — Occurrence of mica — Use and production. Chapter XI. Asbestos, Actinolite and Talc 119 Composition of the minerals — Occurrence in Quebec — Method of Mining— Uses — Production — Literature. Chapter XII. Peat, Coal, Graphite 124 Origin of peat — Uses — Localities — Kinds of coal — Analyses of a number of Canadian coals — Impurities in coal — Geological relations of coal — Origin of coal — Tables showing gradual passage from wood — Description of the different coal-fields —Production — Literature — Description of graphite — Occurrence - Use.

Chapter XIII. The Hydrocarbons 148 Composition of petroleum — Geological occurrence — Canadian oil-fields — Refining and use — Production — Composition of natural gas — Occurrence in Canada — Use and production — Asphalt — Anthraxolite — Albertite. Section III.— ROCKS AND THEIR PRODUCTS. Chapter XIV. Granite and Sandstone 161 Uses of stone — Qualities of building stones — Production of granite — Origin of sandstone — Occurrence and use as building stone — Other uses of sand and sandstone. CONTENTS. VI PAGE Chapter XV" Clay and Slate 171 Origin and composition of clay — Uses — Production — Origin of slate — Occurrence. Chapter XVI. Limestone 179 Origin and occurrence of limestone — Use for building material — Marble — Lithographic stone — Mortar and CP'lllfllt. Chapter XVII. Soils and Mineral Fertilizers 187 Origin of soil — Conditions of fertility — Ashes of plants — Analyses of some Canadian soils — Geological fertilizers. Appendix 199 .Summary of mineral production, 1S94 and 1895 — Tabular comparison of Canada with other countries in mineral production.

Introduction

.

In estimating the natural resources of our Dominion one thinks first of the boundless acres of fertile soil. These, a perennial source of wealth, which under good management can never be exhausted, are certainly our principal asset. At the same time it must be remembered that the annual production of both our forests and our fisheries amounts to many million dollars. Until recently the product of our mines was the least of these four resources, and this was not because we were without mineral resources, but that we had barely begun to exploit them. Timber, fish, minerals are supplies laid up for us by Nature on which we can draw at will. Minerals once mined are never replaced. Timber once cut might be, but with us, never is, restored. Our fisheries we make some poor attempts to preserve. In agriculture alone do we seek to keep our rich inheri tance intact.

But though our mineral wealth be a fleeting one — though it be a resource which cannot be cultivated and increased like timber or fish — it is an asset of such enormous extent that it may be drawn on for hundreds of years to an amount far in excess of that annually produced by either our forests or our fisheries. In considering the possibilities of mineral develop ment, attention must first be directed to the extent and character of our country. With an area a little larger than that of the United States and with the same physical features, it would be strange indeed if much of the mineral wealth of that country were not duplicated north of the boundary. The Rocky Moun tains and parallel ranges extend for some 1,300 miles through the States of New Mexico, Colorado, Wyom ing and Montana, and for an equal distance through British Columbia and the Yukon District, and it is safe to assert that their mineral wealth does not stop at the forty-ninth parallel.

So also the Sierra Nevada of California is represented north of the boundary by the Coast Range of British Columbia, and the latter may yet prove as rich as the former. In the east the Appalachian system is perhaps even richer north of the boundary than south of it, though it is, of course, of much less extent. In the V-shaped territory of Archæan rocks stretching on either side of Hudson Bay from the Arctic to the St. Lawrence, there is an immense depository for minerals unequalled south of the line. True, we miss on the north the immense coal deposits of the Mississippi basin, but in a measure we have compensation in very fair-sized coal beds on both our Atlantic and Pacific coasts. It has been customary for Canadians to lament the existence of this large area of non-agricultural terri tory.

But Nature always makes compensation. If by mountain upturning or glacial erosion she has rendered parts of our country unsuited for farming, she has in most instances at the same time raised and uncovered inexhaustible stores of silver and gold, of copper and iron. Nearly the equal of Europe in size, we surpass any one nation of that continent in the variety of our mineral deposits, and may yet equal the richest of them in the total value of our production. Great Britain has had large deposits of goal, and her production is the greatest in the world. Her output must, however, shortly begin to lessen, while ours will increase. Russia stands second as a petroleum pro ducer, and will no doubt surpass us for years. It is possible, however, that fields will be discovered in the North-West quite the equal of hers.

The copper output of Spain at present exceeds ours, but the deposits here are quite as extensive as there. Similarly with other minerals, different European nations sur pass us in production, but it is probable that our deposits are the more extensive, except in the case of coal, petroleum and tin. Already in asbestos we have surpassed not only Europe but the world. Italy, our only competitor, is far behind. With nickel we occupy the same proud position. Our gold product, though it may never equal that of Australia or the United States, may easily exceed that of all Europe combined. Our deposits of iron, lead, silver, copper, salt and other minerals are enormous. They are, however, almost entirely undeveloped. We can only gness at their value. So far we have, as a people, merely scratched the surface of a few acres of our mineral inheritance.

Australia, with an area and population both slightly less than our own, has an annual mineral production nearly three times the value of ours. Belgium, a country of only 6,200,000 inhabitants, crowded into an area about half the size of Nova Scotia, draws twice as large an income from her mines as does Canada. And yet it is very probable that there is as much mineral wealth in Nova Scotia alone as in Belgium. Indeed, Nova Scotia, with coal and iron deposits in close proximity to each other and to the ocean, should, like Belgium, send her iron manufactures to the ends of the world. While we have been slow in beginning the develop ment of our mines a fair start has now been made, and we may hope for more rapid advancement in the near future. The total value of the mineral product for 1896 was about twenty-three and a half million dollars.

Coal is the most important, yielding annu ally about eight million dollars. Gold is second, with a product approaching three million in value, which gives us tenth place among the nations. Nickel, cop per and petroleum each exceed one million in value, and the silver output now amounts to over two million. In coal we rank eleventh, in petroleum fourth, and in silver tenth. Bricks and building stones are the only other products passing the million line in value. In ten years the total production has doubled. (See Appendix.) Within the last two years the gold and silver output of British Columbia has increased enormously. Estimated at $380,000 in 1893, it grew to about $2,200,000 in 1895, and reached $3,900,000 in 1896. In succeeding chapters there will be given a description of the different economic minerals, the localities where they are found, and their uses and value.

To do so will require the use of some geological terms, which we will now consider. Rock-forming Minerals. — A mineral is an inor ganic, homogeneous substance of definite, chemical composition. It may be a chemical element, more usually it is a compound resulting from the union of two or more elements in a definite proportion. A rock on the contrary is composed " of one or more simple minerals having usually a variable chemical composition, with no necessarily symmetrical, external form, and ranging in cohesion from mere loose debris up to the most compact stone." For example, granite is a rock composed of a variable mixture of the minerals, quartz, felspar and mica. Sandstone, limestone, sand and gravel are other examples of rocks. Gypsum is a mineral of definite composition, which in large masses may be considered a rock.

Minerals which are of economic value will be de scribed later under the substance they yield. A brief description of the chief rock-forming minerals will be given here. Quartz is the most widely disseminated mineral. It is readily distinguished by its glass}* lustre and great hardness. It will easily scratch glass and can not be scratched by a knife. It never breaks in flat surfaces but always in curved ones. In color it is usually transparent or white, though often stained yellow or red by iron oxid. Felspar embraces several species which are much alike in physical features. All split in two directions with flat shining surfaces. In one variety, orthoclase, these cleavages are at right angles. In the other varieties, known collectively as plagioclase, they are nearly at right angles. The latter are sodium, calcium, aluminum silicates ; the former has potassium in place of sodium and calcium.

The felspars can just be scratched with a knife. The micas are easily known by their cleavage into thin elastic leaves. Some are clear and transparent, others black and opaque. Pyroxene and hornblende are almost alike in com position but differ in their angles of cleavage. This is a distinction not evident in hand specimens of rocks. Both, as found in rocks, are dark green or black minerals with a hardness a little less than fel spar. With a blowpipe they are much more easily fused. Calcite is easily recognized when crystallized by the rhombohedrons or twisted cubes into which it readily breaks. All varieties are easily cut with a knife, and effervesce readily when touched with a drop of acid. In color calcite is usually white or grey. Dolomite differs from calcite in having mag nesium carbonate mixed with the calcium carbonate of the latter.

It effervesces with acids only when heated. Chlorite occurs in thin leaves like the micas, but unlike them is not elastic. It varies in color from light to dark green. It is comparatively soft, and frequently has a pearly lustre. Serpentine is usually a massive mineral with an oily green color and greasy feel. It is easily scratched with a knife. The fibrous variety is the asbestos of commerce. Origin of Rocks. — -The minerals described above with the occasional addition of a few others in sub ordinate amounts compose the bulk of our rocks. These constituent minerals are sometimes found with a more or less perfect crystal form, at other times with the edges rounded and worn. The particles vary in both cases from grains of microscopic size to masses of considerable dimensions. The rounded grains are evidently the result of moving water grinding down previously existing rocks.

Rocks with this class of material are found to be arranged in layers as though due to beds of sediment deposited one on the other. These constitute the first great division of rocks known as the Sedimentary, Stratified or Fragmental Rocks. The second division embraces the Massive, Igneous or Eruptive Rocks, which have evidently solidified from a fluid condition either within the crust of the earth or after eruption from a volcano. The sharp angles of the crystals are preserved, and one mineral interlocks with another. These rocks present no appearance of bedding. The third and last division is known as the .Schistose Rocks. They present characters intermediate to the other two. They are distinctly bedded, but do not show fragmental grains. The crystalline character of the constituents points to solidification from a fluid.

In some ■2 cases they are doubtless sediments which have been subjected to sufficient heat to permit of the recrystallization of the minerals without destroying the stratification. For this reason they are often called the Metamorphic Rocks. In other cases they are Igneous Rocks, in which the divisional planes have been pro duced after the first consolidation. Description of Rocks. — A few of the more important representatives of the above divisions will be described here. Sand is an unconsolidated mass of fine worn grains of the harder minerals. Quartz is much the largest constituent since it resists decay, whilst the other minerals of the rocks, which are being worn down, are slowly carried off. Magnetite, an oxid of iron, is frequently abundant and gives a black color to the sand. Gravel is coarse sand.

Sandstone is simply consolidated sand, in some cases produced by pressure alone, in others due to a cementing material. The cement may be clay, iron oxid, silica, or calcite. The first gives rise to a clayey or argillaceous sandstone, which may graduate into a sandy or arenaceous shale. The red and yellow sand stones are due to oxids of iron. A Conglomerate is formed of rounded pebbles up to a foot or more in diameter consolidated in any way. It bears the same relation to gravel and shingle that sandstone does to sand. Clay results from the decay of felspars and similar silicates of the crystalline rocks. Deposited in water in beds it becomes more or less consolidated, and is then known as shale. Limestones consist mainly of calcite or of calcite and dolomite. They also contain greater or less quantities of impurities — iron, giving them a red color ; carbonaceous matter making them dark ; clay, and silica or sand.

They are usually grey or drab in color, of compact structure, and frequently contain organic remains. Some of them found associated with crystalline rocks have been metamorphosed by the action of heat and pressure, and are of a crystalline, granular texture. Fine-grained ones, susceptible of polish, are used as marble. Granite is the most important of the massive or igneous rocks. It consists of an intimate mixture of quartz, felspar and mica. The crystals of these minerals may be barely visible or of considerable dimensions. The felspar may be red or white in color, and the granite is always of a corresponding hue. Granite occurs in masses of large extent and also in dikes in other rocks. Mica may be replaced by hornblende, the rock then being called a hornblende granite. Felsite is an intimate mixture of exceedingly fine grained felspar and quartz.

It varies in color through grey, red and brown shades, is slightly trans lucent and can be fused with a blowpipe, while quartz, which it resembles, cannot. Quartz-Porphyry. — Large distinct crystals of quartz or felspar are often found in felsite or in a fine grained, microgranitic ground-mass. Such a rock is known as a porphyry. Syenite is a granular crystalline mixture of orthoclase felspar and hornblende, usually red or grey THE MINERAL WEALTH OF CANADA. in color. It differs from granite in the absence of quartz. Diorite is a granular crystalline mixture of plagio clase felspar and hornblende. It is dark green to black in color, usually fine grained and often contains magnetite. Diabase, dolerite and basalt are closely related to diorite, and as all four weather to a green color they are often called greenstones.

Gneiss. — Among the schistose rocks gneiss is the most important. It resembles granite in being a crystalline mixture of quartz, felspar and mica. It has, however, a banded structure which seems in some cases to be the result of an earlier stratification. This laminated appearance is not always very distinct, and gneiss merges gradually into granite. Mica Schist is a schistose aggregate of quartz and mica, each arranged in lenticular wavy laminæ. The mica may be the light or dark colored variety. Seri cite mica may replace the ordinary micas, when a sericite schist results. Chlorite and talc with quartz and other minerals make respectively cltlorite schist and talc schist. The last three are grey or green in color, with a pearly lustre and greasy feel. Slate results from the metamorphism and recrystallization in layers of ordinary clay and shale.

Relative Age of Rocks. — On examining any ex posed section of the sedimentary rocks, it becomes at once evident that the older rocks are lowest in the series and the newer ones on top. In the same way it has been determined in many parts of the world that the sedimentary rocks rest on a fundamental complex of igneous rocks. In certain of the sedimentary strata coal seams are found in many parts of the world, and it at once becomes a matter of great interest to us as Canadians to know whether rocks of the same age occur here. Other strata are character ized by iron ores, or lead ores, and so on. Geologists have thus found it advantageous, from an economical as well as from a scientific standpoint, to correlate in age the various rocks of the world as far as possible. Three guiding principles are used: — 1.

That of super position, that the newer rocks are above the older. In mountainous regions rocks have frequently been crumpled and overturned, and this principle cannot then be applied. Moreover, it does not help to corre late the ages of rocks not lying together. 2. The principle that rocks which are alike were formed at the same time. This is only true for limited areas, for, to take one example, sandstones formed ages apart are alike in composition and structure. 3. The principle that animal life was the same the world over at corresponding periods in the growth of each section of the sedimentary deposits. On studying the fossil remains entombed in the stratified rocks, it was found that certain formations contained trilobites in abundance, others graptolites, others fish, and so on. These characteristic animals were not confined to one horizon but were found in several.

Beginning in one period they increased enormously in a second, and died out in a third. Other animal life, of course, existed along with them. The life of a period as pre sented to us in the rocks formed at the time, is thus quite sufficient to identify a rock formed at the same time in a remote part of the world. THE MINERAL WEALTH OF CANADA. In the study of English history it is customary to divide the subject into epochs. There is the Saxon epoch, the Norman epoch, the Plantagenet epoch, and so on. These are the great divisions, and under them are grouped the events which happened during the reigns of the successive sovereigns. Of course, the gradual development of the English nation went on irrespective of slight changes in rulers. But the reign of the sovereign, as the representative English man, makes a natural division of time.

So in geological history, the development of animal types went steadily on, but the ascendancy of some par ticular group marks a division of time as does a dynasty in history. As to the relative lengths of the different geological time divisions little can be said. The main fact is the order of succession. The oldest rocks are without fossil remains, and are called the Azoic or Archæan series of rocks, and are said to have been formed in Archæan time. Above these rocks are found the Palæozoic series ; on these the Mesozoic series ; on these again the Cenozoic series, which includes rocks now forming. These large divisions of time are subdivided as shown in the following chart, the oldest rocks being at the bottom of the page. The terms " time," " era," " period," " epoch," are divisions of time ; the corresponding terms " series," " system," " group," " formation," refer to the rocks made during the interval of time.

The first two divisions are of world-wide application ; the latter are only of local use. The capital letters are those used on the Geological Survey maps for the respective formations against which they are placed. CHART OF GEOLOGICAL TIME. Time. Era or System. Period or Group. Epoch or Formation. Quaternary or Recent oi Fost- Glacial, M3. Glacial or Pleistocene, Ml. Post-Tertiary, M. Cenozoic. Tertiary, L. Pliocene, L3. Miocene, L2. Oligocene, \ T , Eocene, I Cretaceous, K. Cretaceous, K. Mesozoic. Jurassic, J. Jurassic, J. Triassic, H. Triassic, H. Permian, G4. Carbonic, G. Carboniferous. ("Coal Measures, G3. V Millstone Grit, G2. Subcarboniferous, Gl. Devonian, F. Upper Devonian, F3. Middle Devonian, F2. JChemung. ( Portage. Hamilton. / Cornif erous. ( Oriskany. Lower Devonian, FI. Lower Hclderberg, E6.

Onondaga, E5. Palæozoic. Silurian, E. Niagara. (Guelph, E4. | Niagara, E3. "I Clinton, E2. (Medina, El. Cambro-Silurian or Lower Silurian, D. Trenton. (Hudson, D4. \ Utica, D3. | Trenton, D2. /Chazy. \ Calcif erous. Canadian or Quebec. Cambrian, C. Upper Cambrian or Potsdam. Middle Cambrian or Acadian. Lower Cambrian or Georgian. Azoic or Archæan. Huronian, B. Upper Huronian. Lower " Laurentian, A. Upper Laurentian. Lower Literature. — Much excellent information on the economic minerals of the Dominion is to be found in the annual reports of the Geological Survey of Canada. Part " S " of the reports is issued separately, and deals entirely with the mineral production of the year. Geological maps of many areas are issued by the Geological Survey, and may be had for a few cents. A catalogue of the publications of the Survey will be sent on application to the Librarian of the Geological .Survey, Ottawa.

The reports issued yearly by the departments of mines of the provinces of Nova Scotia, Ontario and British Columbia are of great value. The Canadian Mining Review and the Canadian Mining Manual contain valuable summaries of particular industries, as well as many details of operations. The transac tions of several of the Mining Engineers' Societies contain papers on Canadian mines. For the characteristics of minerals and rocks the student will do well to consult Dana's "Manual of Mineralogy and Petrography." On the geological divisions of time see any good text-book, as Dana's "Manual of Geology," or Geikie's "Text-book of Geology " ; also "Report of Geological Survey, Canada," 1882-84, p. 47.

Chapter II. Ore Deposits

Very few of our useful metals occur in nature as we employ them ; nearly all are found combined with various elements to form chemical compounds. Sulfur, oxygen and carbonic acid are the chief mineralizers. Silica, arsenic, antimony and chlorin are also found united with the metals. These definite chemical com pounds are called minerals. A mineral occurring in sufficient amount to be an economical source of a metal is called an ore. Associated with the metalliferous mineral there are usually others which con stitute the gangue or vein-stone. This mixture of minerals makes the ore deposit. Gold and platinum are nearly always found free and uncombined. Sometimes they are mixed with other elements to form alloys, gold frequently containing a percentage of silver, and platinum of iridium. Cop per, silver and mercury are also found native at times, though more usually combined.

Most of the metals form compounds with sulfur. Iron unites with it in two different proportions, but though widely spread neither pyrite nor pyrrhotite can be considered an ore of iron. Silver sulfid, or argentite, is an im portant ore of silver. So also are several sulfids of silver and antimony, and silver and arsenic. Cinna bar, the sulfid of mercury, galena, the sulfid of lead, stibnite, the sulfid of antimony, are the main sources of these metals. Zinc sulfid or blende, and chalco pyrite, bornite and chalcocite, three copper sulfids, are important ores of these two metals. The oxids of iron, manganese and tin constitute the most important ores of these metals. Oxids of copper, and of zinc, are also extensively mined. Among important carbonates are those of iron, copper, zinc and lead.

Silicates are not often a source of metals, but calamine, chrysocolla and garnierite are mined respectively for zinc, copper and nickel. Cer argyrite, or silver chlorid, is the only chlorid of eco nomic importance. Arsenopyrite, a compound of arsenic, iron and sulfur, frequently carries gold. Arsenic also unites with nickel, and with cobalt, to form ores of these metals. Several of these minerals are often closely associated. Silver and lead sulfids are so frequently mixed that it hardly pays to mine lead ore unless it contains some silver. Silver and zinc sulfids are also frequently associated. Iron and copper pyrites are often inter mingled ; so also, iron and manganese oxids. Gold is commonly associated with iron or copper pyrites, though these may have been oxidized on the surface of the deposit.

Other minerals of no economic value are usually associated with those mentioned above. The most common of these gangues are quartz, calcite, barite and fluorite. Sometimes, as in the iron deposits, the gangue is relatively small; in most cases it constitutes the great bulk of the deposit. If one-twentieth of one per cent, of a gold deposit were gold, i.e., about a pound in a ton, the ore would yield $300 to the ton, while $20 would in most cases be very profitable. Evidently in deposits of the precious metals the ore is a minor accessory. In all cases the deposit must be concentrated — the vein-stone must be separated. This is usually accomplished by currents of water which carry off the light gangue and leave the heavy mineral. Ore deposits are the result of the concentration of mineral particles once widely disseminated through the surface rocks or too deeply seated to be of use to man.